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General EBSD Bibliography - Search By Letter B


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251 records found


1.    Böettcher, A., M. Hastenrath, et al. (1990). Nucleation During Primary Recrystallization of RGO Electrical Steel Sheet Observed by the EBSP-Method. Ninth International Conference on Textures of Materials - ICOTOM 9, Avignon, France, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.

RGO electrical steel with low power losses and high permeability to be used in power transformers obtains its superior magnetic properties by a sharp Goss texture developed by secondary recrystallization. RGO is produced by a two stage cold rolling process with intermediate annealing and subsequent primary recrystallization. By ODF analysis a high Goss intensity after primary recrystallization was empirically proved to be advantageous for the development of a sharp final Goss texture in the following secondary recrystallization. This, in turn, requires a better understanding of how to achieve the beneficial primary Goss-texture formed by the basic processes of nucleation and growth. In the present study, the early state of recrystallization was investigated. Only the EBSP method (electron back scattering pattern), recently developed by Dingley, provides a sufficient sub-micron spatial resolution to measure the orientations of the early nuclei together with their cold worked and recovered environment.




2.    Böhm, J., C. A. Volkert, et al. (2002). "Electromigration-Induced Damage in Bamboo Al Interconnects." Journal of Electronic Materials 31(1): 45-49.

Depletion and hillock formation were examined in-situ in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) during electromigration of bamboo Al interconnect segments. Hillocks formed directly at the anode ends of the segments by epitaxial addition of Al at the bottom Al/TiN interface. Depletion occurred nonuniformly from the cathode end and stopped once the distance between the leading void and the hillock reached the critical length for electromigration at the given current density. A modified equation for the drift velocity is proposed, which includes the effect of nonuniform depletion and predicts that interconnects with nonuniform depletion are more reliable than those with uniform depletion.




3.    Böttcher, A., M. Hastenrath, et al. (1992). "Nucleation-Texture of Early Stages of Primary Recrystallization in Electrical Steel." Scripta Metallurgica et Materialia 27(9): 1115-1120.




4.    Baba-Kishi, K. Anomolies in Electron Backscatter Diffraction and the Emergence of Uncertainties in Space Group Determination, Bristol.




5.    Baba-Kishi, K. and D. J. Dingley (1986). Application of EBSP to the Investigation of Nickel Sulphide Crystals. XIth Int. Cong. on Electron Microscopy, Kyoto, 1986, Kyoto.




6.    Baba-Kishi, K. and D. J. Dingley (1986). Electron Backscatter Diffraction at Liquid Nitrogen Temperatures. XIth Int. Cong. on Electron Microscopy, Kyoto, 1986, Kyoto.




7.    Baba-Kishi, K. and D. J. Dingley (1986). Extended use of EBSPs for Crystallography in the SEM. XIth Int. Cong. on Electron Microscopy, Kyoto, 1986, Kyoto.




8.    Baba-Kishi, K. Z. (1990). "A study of directly recorded RHEED and BKD patterns in the SEM." Ultramicroscopy 34 (3): 205-218.

A new method of recording reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED) patterns in the scanning electron microscope (SEM) is discussed. The method involves direct recording of RHEED patterns on photographic film positioned in the vacuum of the chamber at Approximately 10 minus 7 Torr, using a probe diameter Approximately 20 nm and a working distance Approximately 12 mm. RHEED patterns obtained from bulk as-received silicon and GaAs surfaces were seen to exhibit Kikuchi bands, continuous circles of intensity and, in some cases, specular reflections. The technique was used to investigate thin GaAs capping layers deposited on GaAlAs. An account is also given of the application of backscatter Kikuchi diffraction patterns (BKDP) in the SEM to point group and space group determinations. Using the technique, a space group Fd3 over bar m was determined for silicon. Theoretically calculated and experimentally obtained intensity profiles were used to investigate contrast variations across the hhO systematic row of reflections in BKDPs from silicon. The geometrical differences between BKDPs and RHEED patterns are also discussed. (Author abstract) [References: 15]




9.    Baba-Kishi, K. Z. (1998). "Measurement of Crystal Parameters on Backscatter Kikuchi Diffraction Patterns." Scanning 20(2): 117-127.

Electron backscatter Kikuchi diffraction patterns (BKDPs) recorded in the scanning electron microscope (SEM) require measurements on the plane of the photographic film or on the recording screen. The parameters that require measurements are the equivalent electron source point on the pattern, or pattern centre, specimen-to-film distance, true interzonal angles, true interplanar angles, Bragg angles, and interplanar spacing. In this paper, the geometry and the methods of calculation of these parameters on BKDPs recorded directly on film are described in detail. The methods described are suitable for practical purposes, providing speed of calculation but limited accuracy. The inherent factors that limit the accuracy of any measurements on BKDPs are the limitations of the gnomonic projection, resulting in projected distortions in Kikuchi bands and diffuseness of Kikuchi band edges originating from inelastic scattering of electrons. The methods described are applied to crystallographic analysis of BKDPs recorded from silicon and polycrystalline copper.




10.    Baba-Kishi, K. Z. and D. J. Dingley (1987). "Anomalous invisibility in Kikuchi bands." Institute of Physics Conference Series(No. 90: Chapter 5): 135-137.




11.    Baba-Kishi, K. Z. and D. J. Dingley (1987). "Application of Backscatter Kikuchi Diffraction in the SEM to Studies of NiS." Journal of Applied Crystallography 22: 89-98.




12.    Baba-Kishi, K. Z. and D. J. Dingley (1987). "A Contribution to the Point Group Symmetry of NiPS." Institute of Physics Conference Series(No. 90: Chapter 5): 151-153.




13.    Baba-Kishi, K. Z. and D. J. Dingley (1989). "Application of Backscatter Kikuchi Diffraction in the Scanning Electron-Microscope to the Study of NiS2." Journal of Applied Crystallography 22(JUN): 189-200.




14.    Baba-Kishi, K. Z. and D. J. Dingley (1989). "Backscatter Kikuchi Diffraction in the SEM for Identification of Crystallographic Point Groups." Scanning 11(6): 305-312.




15.    Babu, N. H., D. A. Cardwell, et al. (2006). "Grain orientations and distribution of Y2Ba4CuUOxphase in melt-textured YBCO with addition of depleted uranium oxide studied by EBSD." Superconductor Science and Technology 19(7): S567-S571.

The local grain orientations and the distribution of Y2Ba4 CuUOx (U-2411) phase are measured within melt-textured YBCO samples by means of electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). In this work, several samples with varying addition (0.1-0.8 wt%) of depleted uranium oxide (DU) were analysed by means of EBSD The embedded U-2411 particles were found to have sizes around 200 nm, some large particles being present in the samples with a high DU concentration. Combined EBSD and EDX analysis enabled the identification of the Kikuchi patterns of the U-2411 phase, so that a true three-phase EBSD scan (YBCO, Y2BaCuO5 and U-2411) becomes possible.




16.    Bacaltchuk, C. M. B., G. A. C. Branco, et al. (2005). "High magnetic field effect on texture and grain growth of GNO silicon steel." 36(10).

Magnetic annealing at 800°C for 3, 15 and 30 minutes was conducted to evaluate the effect of a 17T magnetic field on the microstructure formation of cold rolled Fe-0.75%Si samples. According to texture measurements magnetic field did not seem to significantly affect the development of grains with Goss orientation, however it showed to affect the nucleation and growth process of {001}, {110} and {111} grains by increasing the volume fraction of the γ fiber and by decreasing the fraction of the alfa and gamma fibers. ESEM/OIM and optical microscope results indicate that although magnetic field may retard nucleation it also promotes grain boundary displacement and for longer annealing times the retardation effect is compensated by the magnetic filed driving force.




17.    Bacaltchuk, C. M. B., G. A. Castello-Branco, et al. (2005). Magnetic Field effect on the microstructure of low Silicon Steel. Textures of Materials - ICOTOM 14, Leuven, Belgium, Trans Tech Publications.

Magnetic annealing at five different magnitudes of field was conducted to evaluate the effect of the field on the recrystallized microstructure of Fe-0.75%Si samples. At higher fields the retardation during recrystallization is compensated by the magnetic filed driving force that causes an increase in the grain boundary mobility of grains that have a certain relationship with the direction of the field




18.    Bache, M. R., W. J. Evans, et al. (1997). "Electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD) analysis of quasi-cleavage and hydrogen induced fractures under cyclic and dwell loading in titanium alloys." Journal of Materials Science 32(13): 3435-3442.

Evidence for sub-surface fatigue crack initiation is often reported for near alpha titanium alloys such as the coarse grained IMI685 and the fine duplex structured IMI834. In such materials with a typical as received hydrogen concentration of 40-60 ppm the initiation site is invariably characterized by quasi-cleavage facetting. Similar facetting is also associated with the low temperature dwell sensitive fatigue response in the same alloys. For IMI685, it is reported that this failure mechanism is replaced by alpha / beta interface cracking when the alloy contains a relatively high concentration of interstitial hydrogen. The present paper characterises the local grain orientation and microstructural conditions associated with these various forms of failure through the use of a microtextural analysis technique based upon electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD) measurements. The observations are related to an existing model to account for facet formation based upon the pile-up of dislocations at grain-boundaries. The implications for further use of this technique with titanium alloys are discussed.




19.    Bache, M. R., W. J. Evans, et al. (1998). "Characterization of mechanical anisotropy in titanium alloys." Materials Science and Engineering A A257(1): 139-44.

A significant limitation in the use of LEFM to predict crack propagation behaviour is the assumption that mechanical behaviour is isotropic. This assumption has important implications for materials with an essentially HCP crystallographic structure, such as titanium alloys, in which the number of slip systems is limited. This view is reinforced here by showing that slight variations in the crystallographic orientation of a near alpha titanium alloy can markedly change fatigue crack propagation characteristics. The paper concentrates on load controlled fatigue data generated on thin section plate fatigue specimens. Interactions between the fatigue crack and microstructural features were studied and later related to crystallographic orientation through the EBSD technique. Features that affect crack propagation include colony/prior beta grain boundaries and secondary cracking. Furthermore, it is shown that many fatigue crack propagation characteristics are a direct consequence of crystallographic orientation. In particular, the orientation of the alpha colony within which the crack initiates is the dominant factor in determining overall fatigue life. (14 References).




20.    Bache, M. R., W. J. Evans, et al. (2001). "The effects of texture in titanium alloys for engineering components under fatigue." International Journal of Fatigue 23: S153–S159.

The mechanical response of textured Ti 6/4 plate material is assessed through an evaluation of monotonic properties under tension and torsion loading and fatigue testing of plain section and notched specimen geometries. Significant variations in modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and ductility are demonstrated for testpieces taken from the plate materials parallel to either the transverse or longitudinal rolling direction. Cyclic performance is also shown to be sensitive to orientation with different cyclic stress–strain curves defined in the two orientations. The relationship between the principal stress axis and the dominant basal plane texture is shown to control fatigue crack initiation lives and the ultimate mode of fracture. Whilst loading parallel to the transverse direction offers the strongest monotonic and cyclic stress–strain response, fatigue tests performed on specimens orientated parallel to the longitudinal rolling direction provide the optimum cyclic life. These effects are discussed with reference to the inherent, anisotropic mechanical response of α+β titanium alloys, which results from the hexagonal crystallographic form of the α phase and the availability of preferential slip systems. It is argued that the anisotropic response could be utilised to an engineering advantage by matching critical stressing directions to the specific properties offered by the texture.




21.    Backx, P. and L. Kestens (2005). Dynamic Recrystallization during Compression of Mg-3%Al-1%Zn. Textures of Materials - ICOTOM 14, Leuven, Belgium, Trans Tech Publications.

Magnesium is the lightest structural metal with a density of only 1.74 kg/dm3. Furthermore the yield strength and fracture strain of cast magnesium alloys are as good as those of common grade aluminum alloys. Because of these favorable properties there is a lot of interest from the automotive industry to use magnesium and its alloys in order to produce lighter vehicles. Because of its hexagonal crystal structure magnesium displays a very high mechanical anisotropy and a poor formability. In order to address these problems the influence was studied of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) on the microstructure and texture during compression of AZ31 samples (Mg-3%Al-1%Zn). Cylindrical samples were subjected to uniaxial compression tests at various temperatures and strain rates. The occurrence of DRX is revealed by optical micrographs that display bulging grain boundaries and the formation of newly formed grains. As DRX leads to grain refinement and grain refinement leads to an increased strength, DRX is an appropriate instrument to improve the strength of this alloy. The texture evolution and the volume fraction of recrystallized grains during DRX are monitored by orientation microscopy. The orientation microscopy postprocessing software allows to calculate the textures of both original and recrystallized grains separately. It is shown that the recrystallized grains have a much more random texture than the original ones and that increasing the temperature and decreasing the strain rate have a positive effect on the randomization of the texture. Previous research has shown that a near random initial texture produces a better formability (more than 40% failure strain at room temperature in a compression test) for this alloy [1]. This demonstrates that DRX can give rise to an improved ductility.




22.    Backx, P., M. R. Barnett, et al. (2004). Texture Changes during Uniaxial Compression of Mg-3Al-1Zn. Second Joint International Conference on Recrystallization and Grain Growth, ReX & GG2, SF2M, Annecy, France, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.

The mechanical anisotropy of wrought Mg alloys is very high. For example, the yield stress of extruded Mg-3Al-1Zn tested in tension can be as high as twice that obtained in compression. To solve the problems this creates for product design it is necessary to understand the sensitivity of texture to processing parameters. Uniaxial compression tests at different temperatures were performed on cylindrical samples of an extruded Mg-3Al-1Zn bar. The texture during this deformation changes from a situation where all crystal c-axes are nearly perpindicular to the sample axis to one where the c-axes are all nearly parallel to this axis. Compression was stopped at different strains to examine the rate of this texture change. Textures were examined using EBSD measurements. It was found that different mechanisms operate depending on the temperature of deformation and that a variety of textures can be created. Also it was seen that an annealing treatment performed after compression has an influence on the texture. Afterwards the samples were subjected to another uniaxial compression test to examine the influence of texture on room temperature properties.




23.    Bacroix, B., C. Cabus, et al. (2004). Phases transformation textures in steels. International Conference on Advanced High Strength Sheet Steels for Automotive Applications, Winter Park, Colorado, USA.

The anisotropic mechanical properties of steel sheets are mainly controlled by their crystallographic textures. Until recently, little attention has been paid on the understanding of the textures formation after hot-rolling, which are produced by phase transformation, although it is recognised that they have an effect on the development of the texture in the further process (cold rolling and annealing). Moreover, development of new kind of steels like TRIP steels, which microstructure is formed during phase transformation, makes it particularly important to understand how these textures form and how we can control them. The aim of this work is to contribute to the understanding of the textures resulting from a transformation between the austenite and the ferrite phase. A brief survey of the literature concerning the orientation relationships between these phases is given in the introduction. Then the orientation relationship between gamma and alpha phases and the variant selection phenomenon is investigated in the first part of this work at the scale of individual grains using the EBSD technique. This work is carried out on a TRIP steel, containing both the parent and the product phases, so that a direct link could be established between the orientations of the austenite and of the product phases. The role of active slip systems during the deformation of austenite is also considered. In a second part we examine the macroscopic textures of a low carbon steel for different state of austenite before transformation, namely when it is deformed or recrystallised.




24.    Bacroix, B., P. Gerber, et al. (2003). Monte Carlo modelling of recrystallization in metals. ICTPMCS: 2nd International Conference on Thermal Process Modelling and Computer Simulation, Nancy, France.

A Monte Carlo (MC) procedure was applied to study static recrystallization processes. The initial microstructure, stored energy and orientation within each grain were taken from EBSD measurements. Site orientations used in the model may change continuously in Euler space. Several types of site saturated nucleation were implemented in the model. A standard MC algorithm was used and tested in several ways. The grain size distribution and final recrystallization texture obtained from the model were compared with experimental ones. The agreement between both sets of data is satisfactory. As some minor experimental effects are not observed in the model, some improvements are finally proposed.




25.    Baczynski, G. J., R. Guzzo, et al. (2000). "Development of Roping in an Aluminum Automotive Alloy AA6111." Acta Materialia 48: 3361-3376.

The roping behavior of an automotive sheet alloy AA6111 was investigated for two processing schedules that led to the production of: (1) roping and (2) non-roping materials. In contrast to the data available in the literature, this study shows that both ridges and valleys on the upper and lower surfaces are irregularly distributed in the rolling direction (RD) and that ribbed profiles and corrugations are rare. The electron back scattering diffraction (EBSD) experiments demonstrated that banded structures of Goss are more evident throughout the specimen thickness than similar bands of Cube texture. The volume texture of the hotband comprised of the strong brass-copper-S fiber, while exclusively Cube texture was present in the non-roping material. In addition to the Cube, the Goss, G1, S and [100] //RD fiber components were produced in specimens associated with roping. The present study shows that the spatial distribution of the Goss component is responsible for the roping behavior in aluminum alloy AA6111.




26.    Badirujjaman, S. and M. Winning (2005). "Cyclic Deformation of Pure Aluminum Bicrystals." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 36A(11): 2905-2912.

The dynamic behavior of < 112 > -tilt grain boundaries in aluminium bicrystals under the influence of cyclic stresses at elevated temperatures is reviewed. Bicrystals, containing low- and high-angle grain boundaries within a wide range of misorientation angles, were deformed at several combinations of stress, temperature, and number of cycles. The grain-boundary (GB) displacement and the deformed structure of bicrystals were framed using standard optical microscopy. The grain orientations were measured using the electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique with a scanning electron microscope (SEM), before and after the deformation. There is distinct evidence of a sharp transition angle between low- and high-angle grain boundaries, with respect to the ability of the boundaries to move under the given parameters. The experimental observations lead to the conclusion that a difference in the dislocation structure in two grains causes the driving force for GB migration.




27.    Bae, J.-H., S.-H. Choi, et al. (2005). Study of Texture Development and Anisotropy of Mechanical Properties of API-X80 Line pipe Steel for Spiral-Welded Pipe. Textures of Materials - ICOTOM 14, Leuven, Belgium, Trans Tech Publications.

This study has been conducted to analyze the effect of texture and microstructure on the anisotropy of yield strength and Charpy fracture toughness of an X80 line pipe steel. The texture and microstructure were investigated by X-ray diffractometer and electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD). The yield strength and impact energy were measured along 0° (longitudinal), 30° and 90° (transverse) to the rolling direction. It was found that the microstructure of the developed steel consisted of fine acicular and polygonal ferrite with small pearlite and martensite or retained austenite (MA constituents). The major components of textures were {332}<113> and {113}<110> orientations. In order to investigate the effect of both morphological and crystallographic texture on yield strength anisotropy, the prediction of the plastic property was carried out by using a viscoplastic self-consistent (VPSC) polycrystal model. The predicted anisotropy of yield strength with VPSC model assuming ellipsoidal grain shape was in a good agreement with experimental observation. EBSD results showed that the density of {001} cleavage planes of Charpy specimen, 30 degree to rolling direction, was the highest compared with that of other specimens. Therefore, the highest susceptibility to the cleavage fracture, i.e. increased ductile-brittle transition temperature, can be seen in the 30 degree direction.




28.    Baeck, S. M., H.-K. Seok, et al. (2002). Texture Analysis of Aluminum Plate Produced by ECAP. ICOTOM 13, Seoul, Korea, Trans Tech Publications Inc.

A modified Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) process was used to make a sheared plate from an annealed 1050 aluminum and the texture evolution of the plate was studied by using Electron Back Scattered Diffraction (EBSD), and the effects of texture evolution on the mechanical properties of the plate were investigated. By using the rate sensitive model, the texture evolution was simulated, and the calculation results were compared to the experimentally measured results. The deformation texture of the sheared aluminum plate changed from <100>//TD to <111>//TD and <110>//TD directions.




29.    Baeck, S. M., K. K. Park, et al. (2002). Texture Analysis of Copper Bonding Wire. ICOTOM 13, Seoul, Korea, Trans Tech Publications Inc.

Due to the decrease of IC chip size, the development of fine diameter copper bonding wires attaches chip to lead frame is on increasing trend. To get high-strength fine pitch copper bonding wires, optimization of wire drawn procedure and optimized recrystallization annealing method are investigated. The microstructure and microtexture of bonding wires are analyzed by using Electron Back Scattered Diffraction (EBSD) and the relations between initial diameter of ingot and microtexture are revealed. Typical drawing and final annealing of copper bonding wires gives minor <111> and major <100> texture at 350°C and 450°C. Intermediate annealing before final diameter makes major <111> and minor <100> component with optimum grain size.




30.    Bahgat, M., Y. Sasaki, et al. (2005). "The Effect of Grain Boundaries on the Surface Rearrangement during Wustite Reduction within its Range of Existence." ISIJ International 45(5): 657-661.

Dense polycrystalline wustite samples equilibrated with 50%CO-CO2 gas mixture for 432 ks has been reduced at 1 073 K using 60%CO-CO2 gas mixture to study the effect of grain boundaries on the surface rearrangement process. Orientations of surface grains on the wustite specimens are measured by applying electron backscattering pattern technique. The development of the surface arrangement away from grain boundaries is significantly larger than that near grain boundaries. Quick establishment of the equilibrium with the reacting gas in the region near grain boundaries at the early stage of the reduction makes it difficult to continue the transportation of Fe2+ ions into deep interiors of wustite by the volume diffusion process. As a result, the surface rearrangement is retarded at the surface near grain boundaries after the equilibration of the surface. The transportation of Fe2+ ions at the surface layer away from grain boundaries by volume diffusion is small but not negligible so that the surface rearrangement away from the grain boundary is possible to continue until almost the whole sample is equilibrated.




31.    Bahr, D. F., K. A. Nibur, et al. (2002). "Nanoindentation and Orientation Imaging: Probing Small Volumes and Thin Films for Mechanical Properties." Journal of Electronic Materials 31(1): 66-70.

The use of continuous load and depth monitoring indentation methods for measuring the mechanical properties of small volumes in conjunction with orientation imaging microscopy (OIM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) is presented for a model system. Because many materials for micrelectronics are processed in hydrogen-containing atmospheres, a model system is needed to show how OIM and AFM can be coupled to determine slip behavior on the nanometer to micrometer length scale as a function of hydrogen concentration. AFM imaging alone is not able to quantify the slip behavior, but coupling AFM and OIM demonstrates how changes in hardness can be linked to changes in slip band formation.




32.    Bahr, D. F., K. A. Nibur, et al. (2003). "Hydrogen and Deformation: Nano- and Microindentation Studies." JOM 55(2): 47-50.




33.    Bai, F., P. Cizek, et al. (2003). Microstructural Evolution in a Model Fe-30wt%Ni Alloy During Hot Plane-Strain Compression. Thermec' 2003, Leganés, Madrid, Spain, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.

A Fe-30wt% based alloy, retaining a stable austenitic structure at room temperature, was used for modelling the development of austenite microstructure during hot deformation of conventional carbon-manganese steels. A series of plane-strain compression (PSC) tests were carried out at 950°C and a strain rate of 10s-1 to several strain levels. Evolution of the grain structure, crystallographic texture and dislocation substructure was characterized in detail using light microscopy, electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).




34.    Bai, F., P. Cizek, et al. (2004). Characteristics of the Deformed and Recrystallised Grains Obtained after Hot Plane Strain Compression of a Model Fe-30wt%Ni Alloy. Second Joint International Conference on Recrystallization and Grain Growth, ReX & GG2, SF2M, Annecy, France, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.

The development of physically-based models of microstructural evolution during hot deformation of metallic materials requires knowledge of the grain-subgrain structure and crystallographic texture characteristics over a range of processing conditions. A Fe-30wt%Ni based alloy, retaining a stable austenitic structure at room temperature, was used for modelling the development of austenite microstructure during hot deformation of conventional carbon-manganese steels. A series of plane strain compression tests was carried out at a temperature of 950DGC and strain rates of 10/s and 0.1/s to several strain levels. Evolution of the grain-subgrain structure and crystallographic texture was characterised in detail using quantitative light microscopy and high-resolution electron backscatter diffraction. Crystallographic texture characteristics were determined separately for the observed deformed and recrystallised grains The subgrain geometry and dimensions together with the misorientation vectors across sub-boundaries were quantified in detail across large sample areas and the orientation dependence of these characteristics was determined. Formation mechanisms of the recrystallised grains were established in relation to the deformation microstructure.




35.    Bai, R., C. L. Briant, et al. (1998). "Investigation of the Annealing Texture Evolution in Hafnium." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 29(3): 757-764.




36.    Baik, S. C. and Y. S. Jin (2000). Effects of Composition on Anisotropy and Texture of Continuously Annealed Low Carbon Steel Sheets. Thermec 2000, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, Elsevier Science Ltd.

The effects of Mn and Ti contents on the texture and anisotropy of continuously annealed low carbon steels were examined. The r45 value and the peak of y fibre texture were increased in the cold rolled low carbon steel when Mn content was decreased. The α fibre texture was developed in the small grains of the Ti added low carbon steel, because the small grains of the α fibre texture formed in a low temperature during heating was protected by the TiC precipitates. While grain growth was retarded due to TiC in the Ti added low carbon steel, the grains of {111}<110> grew selectively, exhibiting the grain shape elongated in the rolling direction. According to these investigations, the new isotropic cold rolled steel could be developed by addition of Ti and reduction of Mn in the conventional low carbon steel. Though the LDR and LDH values were not increased, the results of deep drawing using a rectangular punch showed that the formability of the developed isotropic steel was superior to that of the conventional one.




37.    Baillin, X., J. J. Bacmann, et al. (1987). "Dislocation Transmission Through Sigma=9 Symmetrical Tilt Boundaries in Silicon and Germanium.1. Insitu Observations by Synchrotron X-Ray Topography and High-Voltage Electron-Microscopy." Philosophical Magazine A 55(2): 143-164.




38.    Baker, I. and J. Li (2004). "An EBSP Study of Isothermally-Annealed Cold-Rolled Nickel." Microscopy Reasearch and Technique 63: 289-2997.

Scanning electron microscopy and electron backscattered patterns, EBSP, have been employed to reveal both the grain structure and texture of 90% cold-rolled polycrystalline nickel after 1-hour anneals at a variety of temperatures. After annealing at either 400° or 500°C, small, cube-oriented, equi-axed grains were produced via primary recrystallization. At 600°C, large {124}<211> oriented grains accounted for an increasing proportion of the microstructure, until at 1000°C only large grains (~600 µm) and a sharp {124}<211> texture were present. Detailed EBSP analyses of the grain boundaries surrounding the large abnormally grown grains observed at 600°C demonstrated that formation of the secondary recrystallization texture was due to migration of high-mobility, random high-angle boundaries around grains that had a size advantage, consistent with the Abbruzzese-Lücke model.




39.    Baker, S. P., Y.-C. Joo§, et al. (2000). "Electromigration Damage In Mechanically Deformed Al Conductor Lines: Dislocations As Fast Diffusion Paths." Acta Materialia 48: 2199-2208.

The role of dislocations in the generation of electromigration damage in model experiments is considered. Continuous segments of polycrystalline and single-crystal pure aluminum conductor lines were plastically deformed using nanoindentation methods. The lines were subsequently subjected to accelerated electromigration tests, in part in-situ in a scanning electron microscope. Electromigration damage was generated at plastically deformed segments in the single-crystal conductor lines, but not in polycrystalline lines. Diffusion paths and the origins of flux divergences that lead to electromigration damage are discussed. Investigations of the microstructure using focused ion beam (FIB) and electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) techniques did not show signs of fine-grain recrystallization in the indented regions. This and numerical estimates of the diffusivities involved suggest that electromigration damage arises by fast diffusion along dislocations with reasonable densities (of order 1015/m2).




40.    Balden, M., A. F. Bardamid, et al. (2004). Surface roughening and grain orientation dependence of the erosion of polycrystalline stainless steel by hydrogen irradiation. Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Fusion Research, Kyoto, Japan, Elsevier B.V.

Surface roughening of polycrystalline stainless steel mirrors due to hydrogen bombardment was studied as a function of ion fluence and energy (1-4.3x1024 H/m2, 300-1500 eV/H). A strong micro-relief (100 nm scale) on single grains and a strong variation of the erosion depth between different grains were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A broad variation of the in-grain micro-relief was found to be independent of impact energy. The sputtering yield (Y) depends on the grain orientation, varying by a factor of about 2 for all impact energies. The correlation between surface morphology and orientation of the single grains was investigated using electron back-scattering diffraction (EBSD). Grains with nearly (111) surface orientation do not show any significant in-grain micro-relief, although they have nearly the highest Y. For other orientations close to low indexed surfaces, e.g., (311), no correlation was found between Y and roughness. Copyright 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.




41.    Balke, P. (2002). Dynamics of Microstructures in Metal Sheets: An Orientation Imaging Microscopy Study. Groningen, The Netherlands, Groningen: 118.




42.    Balke, P. and J. T. M. DeHosson (2001). "Orientation imaging microscopic observation of in situ deformed ultra low carbon steel." Scripta Materialia 44(3): 461-66.




43.    Balluffi, R. W., P. D. Bristowe, et al. (1981). "Structure of High-Angle Grain-Boundaries in Metals and Ceramic Oxides." Journal of the American Ceramic Society 64(1): 23-34.




44.    Bamford, T. A., W. A. T. Clark, et al. (1986). "Micromechanism of Slip Propagation Through a High Angle Boundary in Alpha-Brss." Scripta Metallurgica 20(2): 253-258.




45.    Banerjee, R., P. C. Collins, et al. (2002). "Phase Evolution in Laser-Deposited Titanium-Chromium Alloys." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 33(July): 2129-2138.




46.    Banovic, S. W., M. D. Vaudin, et al. (2004). "Studies of deformation-induced texture development in sheet materials using diffraction techniques." Materials Science and Engineering A 380(1-2): 155-170.

Crystallographic texture measurements were made on a series of rolled aluminum sheet specimens deformed in equi-biaxial tension up to a strain level of 0.11. The measurement techniques used were neutron diffraction with a 4-circle goniometer, electron backscatter diffraction, conventional powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), and XRD using an area detector. Results indicated a complex texture orientation distribution function which altered in response to the applied plastic deformation. Increased deformation caused the {1 1 0} planes, to align parallel to the plane of the sheet. The different techniques produced results that were very consistent with each other. The advantages and disadvantages of the various methods are discussed, with particular consideration of the time taken for each method, the range of orientation space accessible, the density of data that can be obtained, and the statistical significance of each data set with respect to rolled sheet product.




47.    Barani, A. A. and D. Ponge (2005). Morphology of Martensite Formed from Recrystallized or Work-Hardened Austenite. Solid to Solid Phase Transformations in Inorganic Materials 2005, Phoenix, Arizona, USA, TMS.

The morphology of tempered martensite was investigated in a SiCr spring steel. Samples were austenitized, deformed at different temperatures, quenched, and tempered. Prior to quenching, the austenite was either recrystallized or work hardened. The resulting martensite microstructure and its mechanical properties were characterized in the tempered condition. Orientation imaging microscopy of the final microstructure by automated EBSD measurements and the reconstruction of the parent austenite phase from the orientation of the retained austenite is applied to understand the effect of austenite microstructure on the martensite morphology. Information is extracted from orientation maps to describe the constitution of blocks and packets of the final martensite. Austenite deformation prior to quenching refines the block size.




48.    Barlat, F. and J. Liu (1998). "Precipitate-induced anisotropy in binary Al-Cu alloys." Materials Science and Engineering A257: 47-61.




49.    Barlat, F., J. C. Brem, et al. (1992). "On Crystallographic Texture Gradient and Its Mechanical Consequence in Rolled Aluminum-Lithium Sheet." Scripta Metallurgica et Materialia 27(9): 1121-1126.




50.    Barlat, F., J. Liu, et al. (1990). Prediction of Plastic Properties of Rods from Individual Grain Orientation Measurements. ICOTOM 9, Avignon, France, Published in Textures and Microstructures, 14-18.




51.    Barlow, C. Y. and B. Ralph (1983). "Cold Deformation of a Nickel-Base Super-Alloy." Materials Science and Engineering 59(1): 115-126.




52.    Barmak, K., A. Gungor, et al. (2002). "Texture and Resistivity of Cu and Dilute Cu Alloy Films." Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings 721: J3.1.2 - J3.1.9.

Annealing of dilute binary Cu(Ti), Cu(In), Cu(Al), Cu(Sn), Cu(Mg), Cu(Nb), Cu(B), Cu(Co) and Cu(Ag) alloy films resulted in the strongest <111> fiber texture for Cu(Ti) and the lowest resistivity for Cu(Ag). The behavior of the alloy films was compared and contrasted with that for a pure evaporated Cu film. Electron beam evaporated films with compositions in the range of 2.0-4.2 at% and thicknesses in the range of 420-560 nm were annealed at 400°C for 5 hours. Two different approaches were used to derive volume fractions of texture components, namely fiber plots and orientation distributions. It is argued that for polytextured films such as the copper alloys studied here, orientation distributions derived from pole figures provide the most reliable basis for quantitative characterization.




53.    Barmak, K., W. E. Archibald, et al. (2004). Grain boundary properties and grain growth: Al foils, Al films. Interfacial Engineering for Optimized Properties III, San Francisco, California, USA, Materials Research Society, Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA.

Relative grain boundary energy as a function of misorientation angle has been measured in cube-oriented, i.e., <100> fiber-textured, 120 mu m-thick Al foil using orientation imaging microscopy and a statistical multiscale method. The energies of low-angle boundaries increase with misorientation angle, in good agreement with the Read-Shockley model. The relative energies of high-angle boundaries exhibit little variation with misorientation. Examination of the grain structure of <111> fiber-textured, 100 nm-thick Al films annealed at 400 degrees C for 0.5-10h shows 5 and 6 sided grains to be the most frequent, and the fraction of four-sided grains to be significant. The mean number of sides is slightly lower than the expected value of 6 for two-dimensional structures. Of lognormal, gamma and Rayleigh distributions, gamma gives the best fit to the grain size data in the films; however, the difference between gamma and lognormal is small. Grain growth is not self-similar and stagnates after one hour of annealing. The evolution of the grain size distribution with time indicates that the growth stagnation in the films is neither consistent with boundary pinning by grooving nor with conventional treatments of solute drag. Surface, elastic-strain and plastic-strain energy driving forces do not play a significant role in the grain growth and the subsequent stagnation since the films are strongly textured even in the as-deposited state. The steady-state distributions of reduced grain area for two-dimensional, Monte Carlo and partial differential equation based simulations show excellent agreement with each other, even when anisotropic boundary energies are used. However, comparison with experimental distributions reveals a significantly higher population of small grains in the experiments.




54.    Barmak, K., W. E. Archibald, et al. (2005). Grain Boundary Energy and Grain Growth in Highly-Textured Al Films and Foils: Experiment and Simulation. Textures of Materials - ICOTOM 14, Leuven, Belgium, Trans Tech Publications.

Relative grain boundary energy as a function of isorientation angle was measured in a cube-oriented, 120 μm-thick Al foil and in a <111> fiber-textured, 1.7 μm-thick Al film using a multiscale analysis of the grain boundary dihedral angles. For the Al foil, the energies of low-angle boundaries increased with misorientation angle, in good agreement with the Read- Shockley model. For the Al film, two energy minima were observed for high-angle boundaries. Grain growth was studied in 25 and 100 nm-thick films that were annealed at 400 °C for a series of times in the range of 0.5 to 10 h. For the 100 nm-thick film, grains approximately doubled their size (equivalent circular diameter) before grain growth stagnated. The steady-state distributions of reduced grain area for two- dimensional, Monte Carlo Potts and partial differential equation based simulations showed excellent agreement with each other, even when anisotropic boundary energies were used. However, the simulated distributions had fewer small grains than the experimental distributions.




55.    Barnett, M. R. (2003). "Recrystallization during and following hot working of magnesium alloy AZ31." Materials Science Forum 1: 503-508.

The microstructures of magnesium AZ31 are examined following hot compression testing and annealing. The grain size, fraction dynamically recrystallized and, in a couple of cases, the crystallographic texture are reported. It was found that the progress of dynamic recrystallization is strongly sensitive to processing conditions but that the dynamically recrystallized grain size was less sensitive to stress than in other metals. It was also found that, for structures containing between 80 and 95% dynamic recrystallization, abnormal grain growth occurs during annealing. The crystallographic texture produced is also sensitive to the deformation conditions.




56.    Barnett, M. R. and F. Montheillet (2002). "The generation of new high-angle boundaries in aluminium during hot torsion." Acta Materialia 50(9): 2285-2296.

The crystallographic rotation field for deformation in torsion is such that it is possible for orientations close to stable orientations to rotate away from the stable orientation. A Taylor type model was used to demonstrate that this phenomenon has the potential to transform randomly generated low-angle boundaries into high-angle boundaries. After imposing an equivalent strain of 1.2, up to 40% of the simulated boundaries displayed a disorientation in excess of 15°. These high-angle boundaries were characterised by a disorientation axis close to parallel with the sample radial direction. A series of hot torsion tests was carried out on 1050 aluminium to seek evidence for boundaries formed by this mechanism. A number of deformation-induced high-angle boundaries were identified. Many of these boundaries showed disorientation axes and rotation senses similar to those seen in the simulations. Between 10% and 25% of all the high-angle boundary present in samples twisted to equivalent strains between 2 and 7 could be attributed to the present mechanism.




57.    Barnett, M. R., G. L. Kelly, et al. (2002). "Inferrring Dynamic Recrystallization in Ferrite using the Kinetics of Static Recrystallization." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 33(July): 1893-1990.

A general relationship between the kinetics of dynamic and static recrystallization is developed. It is predicted that conventional dynamic recrystallization will occur whenever the deformation time exceeds the adjusted start time for static recrystallization. This approach is verified using the data for austenite and lead. It is then applied to current and previous work on ferrite. The model provides support for the contention that conventional dynamic recrystallizationa ocurs in low carbon ferrite if deformation is carried out at hiigh temperatures and low strain rates. In the present work, which was carried out at 700° C, evidence for dynamic recrystallization was observed for strain rates less than around 0.01s-1. At higher strain rates, the model predictsa critical strain for the onset of dynamic recrystallization that exceeds the critical strain for the beginning of the recovery for the steady-state region. While the model allows dynamic recrystallization to begin in thei region, the critical strain for its onset is xpected to increase rapidly with increasing strain rate and decreasing temperature once steady state has been reached.




58.    Barnett, M. R., M. D. Nave, et al. (2004). "Deformation microstructures and textures of some cold rolled Mg alloys." Materials Science and Engineering A 386(1-2): 205-211.

Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) is employed to characterize the deformation microstructures and textures established during the cold rolling of pure Mg, Mg-0.2Ce and Mg-3Al-1Zn (also known as AZ31). The maximum cold rolling reductions achievable in these alloys prior to failure were approx 30, >90 and approx 15%, respectively. The dominant features of the microstructure were twins and shear bands. The frequency of the former decreased while that of the latter increased with rolling reduction. Each alloy displayed a fibre texture in which the c-axis was closely aligned with the sheet normal direction. There was little change to the rolling textures with increasing rolling reduction beyond approx 10%. Much of the deformation appeared to be concentrated in the shear bands. It is speculated that the striking effect of alloying addition on cold rollability can be understood in terms of differences in severity, frequency and lifetime of shear bands.




59.    Barnhoorn, A., L. Burlini, et al. (2004). "The role of recrystallisation on the deformation behaviour of calcite rocks: Large strain torsion experiments on Carrara marble." Journal of Structural Geology 26(5): 885-903.

The rheological, microstructural and textural evolution of Carrara marble was studied during experimental deformation in torsion up to very large shear strains (γ =0.4-50). Experiments were performed at constant angular displacement rates corresponding to shear strain rates of 6x 10-5-3x10-3s-1, a confining pressure of 300 MPa and temperatures of 500, 600 and 727 degrees C. Microstructures and crystallographic preferred orientations (CPO) were analysed using light microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). At all conditions deformation occurred dominantly by dislocation creep, even up to very large shear strains. After peak stresses (γ ≤2), recrystallisation mostly by subgrain rotation caused weakening (5-20%), grain size reduction and a change in the CPO. A monoclinic CPO that formed at small strains at all temperatures evolved into two different large strain CPOs at different temperatures. At large strains, even after complete recrystallisation, the CPO continued to strengthen and a secondary foliation was formed at a steep angle to the shear zone boundary. This secondary foliation was continuously reset by both subgrain rotation and grain boundary migration recrystallisation and eventually overprinted the primary foliation. Misidentifying the primary and secondary foliations could result in misinterpretation of the applied strain field. More generally, information about the amount of strain is lacking for microstructures and CPOs of highly deformed ultramylonites. Copyright 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.




60.    Barnhoorn, A., M. Bystricky, et al. (2005). "Post-deformational annealing of calcite rocks." Tectonophysics 403 (1-4): 167-191.

The evolution of microstructure and crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) during post-deformational annealing was studied on three calcite rock types differing in purity and grain size: Carrara marble (98% calcite, mean grain size of 115 μm), Solnhofen limestone (96%, 5 μm) and synthetic calcite aggregates (99%, 7 μm). Samples were first deformed in torsion at 727 °C at a shear strain rate of 3 × 10− 4 s− 1 to a shear strain of 5 and subsequently heat-treated at 727 °C for various durations between 0 and 24 h. Microstructures and CPOs were analysed by optical microscopy, image analysis and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). All rock types deformed in the dislocation creep field at the same applied conditions, but their microstructures and CPOs after deformation and after annealing differed depending on starting grain size and material composition. In Carrara marble and in the synthetic calcite aggregate, a strong CPO developed during deformation accompanied by dynamic recrystallisation with significant changes in grain size. During annealing, widespread grain growth and subtle changes of CPO occurred, and equilibrated foam microstructures were approached after long annealing times. The CPO is the only feature in annealed samples indicating an earlier deformation phase, although it is not always identical to the CPO formed during deformation. In the more impure Solnhofen limestone, secondary phases on grain boundaries suppressed grain boundary mobility and prevented both the formation of a recrystallisation CPO during deformation and grain size modification during deformation and annealing.




61.    Barr, D. L. and W. L. Brown (1995). "A channel plate detector for electron backscatter diffraction." Review of Scientific Instruments 66(6): 3480-3482.

Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) using a scanning electron microscope has proven to be a valuable means for determining the crystal orientation of crystallites as small as approximately 0.25 mu m. However, it is still not widely used. One deterrent is the high cost of the image intensified video camera system that is commonly used to record the weak EBSD images produced on a phosphor screen. A much less expensive detector system has been devised using a microchannel plate (MCP) electron multiplier to provide the necessary gain in image intensity and a standard video camera to record the image. Excitation of the MCP by secondary electrons and low energy backscattered electron is prevented by a thin aluminum foil on the MCP front surface. The benefits and disadvantages of this approach to EBSD are presented, together with typical EBSD images obtained from it. (8 References).




62.    Barr, D. L., L. R. Harriott, et al. (1992). "Focused Ion-Beam Observation of Grain-Structure and Precipitates in Aluminum Thin-Films." Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B 10 (6): 3120-3125.




63.    Barrabes, S. R., M. E. Kassner, et al. (2004). Geometric Dynamic Recrystallization in a-Zirconium at Elevated Temperatures. Second Joint International Conference on Recrystallization and Grain Growth, ReX & GG2, SF2M, Annecy, France, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.




64.    Bartels, A., S. Bystrzanowski, et al. (2004). Massive Transformation in High Niobium Containing TiAl-Alloys. Integrity and Interdisciplinary Aspects of Intermetallics as held at the 2004 MRS Fall Meeting, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, Materials Research Society.

Massive transformation in high Nb bearing γ-TiAl-based alloys, Ti-45Al-7.5Nb and Ti-46Al-9Nb (at.%), and the thermal stability of the resulting microstructure were investigated. Using a quenching dilatometer, a nearly complete massive transformation in Ti-45Al-7.5Nb was found at about 1050 deg C after annealing at 1305 deg C for 10min and subsequent cooling with a rate of 55K/s. Higher starting temperatures and higher cooling rates lead to incomplete massive transformation and small transformed areas situated at the grain-boundary triple points of the parent a-grains are observed. By means of EBSD only in one case the same orientation of the close-packed planes of parent α-grains and of massively transformed γM-areas was observed. The thermal stability of the microstructure of massively transformed Ti-46Al-9Nb sheet material was tested by annealing samples for l hour between 400 and 1200 deg C. Above 800 deg C a drop of hardness was measured and X-ray diffraction patterns show an increasing separation of (200), and (002)7 reflections as expected from a tetragonal γ-TiAl lattice. After annealing at 1100 deg C alpha2phase segregates at grain boundaries and after 1200 deg C α2-lamellae appear insides the γM-grains parallel to all four { 111 } γ-planes.




65.    Bartels, C., D. Raabe, et al. (1997). "Investigation of the Precipitation Kinetics in an Al6061/TiB2 Metal-Matrix Composite." Materials Science and Engineering A 237(1): 12-23.

The aging kinetics of AA6061 (Al-Mg-Si-Cu) based metal matrix composites (MMCs) containing TiB2-particles were investigated using hardness measurements, texture determination and electron microscopy. The samples were produced by an in-situ process. Two industrially manufactured in-situ composites with an AA6061 matrix and TiB2-particles (3.4 vol.%, 6.8 vol.% TiB2) were studied at two different aging temperatures (160°C, 250°C) and compared to a similarly processed non-reinforced AA6061 alloy. An increasing volume fraction of TiB2 correlated with changes in the aging response of the composites. Samples subjected to three aging times were selected for microstructure analysis in the TEM (10 min, 200 min, 1365 min, aging temperature 250°C). Special emphasis was laid on the investigation of the growth kinetics of metastable needle shaped matrix precipitates, which cause the increase in hardness. The TEM examinations of the MMCs substantiated that precipitate growth was accelerated in the presence of TiB2 particles as compared to the unreinforced AA6061. These differences in kinetics were related to microstructural changes induced by the presence of the ceramic TiB2 particles.




66.    Bartout, J.-D., Y. Bienvenu, et al. (2004). "Grain size effects on the mechanical behavior of open-cell nickel foams." Advanced Engineering Materials 6(6): 432-439.

The dependence of the mechanical behavior of nickel foams upon their grain size was studied. First, the grain coarsening phenomenon which occurs during the processing of foams was analyzed. A metallurgical characterization of the grain growth during heat treatment was performed. The grain size effects on the mechanical properties was then studied, namely, via the Hall-Petch law. The foam walls being very thin, roughly 10 µm in thickness, grain growth and mechanical behavior might be different compared with conventional materials. The present results obtained with foams were compared with literature data on bulk pure nickel and with nickel foils of 10 and 50 µm in thickness which are good candidates for the modeling of the cell walls. The EBSD technique allowed observing the absence of preferred crystallographic orientations for both foams and foils. A mechanical model in the spirit of that by Gibson and Ashby was finally presented incorporating the grain size effect on yield strength and hardening modulus. This model provided a good estimation of the experimental data.




67.    Bartozzi, M., A. P. Boyle, et al. (2000). "Automated grain boundary detection and classification in orientation contrast images." Journal of Structural Geology 22(11-12): 1569-1579.

An unbiased and unequivocally defined estimate of grain sizes and shapes is fundamental for understanding the microscopic behaviour of crystalline materials modified by the action of stress fields and/or chemical gradients. Because of their very good spatial resolution, orientation contrast (OC) images represent a useful starting point to develop an automated technique able to assess grain boundaries in a completely objective and reproducible way. The method presented in this contribution defines boundaries as high brightness gradient features on an OC image of a quartz mylonite through a specifically designed sequence of detection and filter algorithms that minimise the effect of local background noise. The object set into which the OC image has been divided is further analysed to compute a set of positions where to perform electron backscatering diffraction analysis and build a crystal orientation data set. This data set is then used along with information from the detection-filtering algorithm to automatically rebuild the real grain boundary net. The obtained results are in good agreement with results from similar manual techniques, while the whole determination process is also much faster than other automated electron backscattering diffraction analytical methods.




68.    Basabe, V. V. and J. A. Szpunar (2005). Texture of Oxide Scales During Hot Rolling of Low Carbon Steel. Textures of Materials - ICOTOM 14, Leuven, Belgium, Trans Tech Publications.

The textures of oxide scales grown on low carbon steel in air over the temperature range 850-950°C were investigated. The low carbon steel was oxidized with the air velocity of 4.2 cm/s for 10 s in order to approximate the formation of tertiary scales in hot rolling. At 850°C, the wüstite texture and magnetite texture are weak with no dominant components. For the temperatures of 900 and 950°C, the wüstite and magnetite phases have a cube texture {001}<100>. The experimental results indicate that during hot rolling in the γ region, the texture of the oxide scale is cubic and when rolling in the α region, the texture of the oxide scale is weak with no dominant components.




69.    Bascoua, J., G. Barruola, et al. (2001). "EBSD-measured lattice-preferred orientations and seismic properties of eclogites." Tectonophysics 342: 61-80.

We investigated the deformation mechanisms and the seismic properties of 10 eclogite samples from different localities (Alps, Norway, Mali and eastern China) through the analysis of their microstructures and lattice-preferred orientations (LPO). These samples are representative of various types and intensity of deformation under eclogitic metamorphic conditions. Omphacite and garnet LPO were determined from electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique. Garnet appears to be almost randomly oriented whereas omphacite develops strong LPO, characterized by the [001]-axes concentrated sub-parallel to the lineation, and the (010)-poles concentrated sub-perpendicular to the foliation. In order to analyze the deformation mechanisms that produced such omphacite LPO, we compare our observations to LPO simulated by viscoplastic selfconsistent numerical models. A good fit to the measured LPO is obtained for models in which the dominant slip systems are 1/2<110>{11¯ 0}, [001] {110} and [001] (100). Dominant activation of these slip systems is in agreement with TEM studies of naturally deformed omphacite. Seismic properties of eclogite are calculated by combining the measured LPO and the single crystal elastic constants of omphacite and garnet. Although eclogite seismic anisotropies are very weak (less than 3% for both P- and S-wave), they are generally characterized by a maximum P-wave velocity sub-parallel to the lineation and by a minimum velocity approximately normal to foliation. The mean P- and S-wave velocities are high (respectively, 8.6 and 4.9 km/s). The S-wave anisotropy pattern displays complex relationships with the structural frame but the fast polarization plane generally tends to be parallel to the foliation. Calculated reflection coefficients show that an eclogite/crust interface is generally a good reflector (Rc > 0.1), whereas an eclogite body embedded in the upper mantle would be hardly detectable.




70.    Basinger, J. A., E. R. Homer, et al. (2005). "Two-dimensional grain boundary percolation in alloy 304 stainless steel." Scripta Materialia 53: 959-963.

An experimentally-obtained percolation threshold for high-angle random grain boundary networks in alloy 304 stainless steel is compared to thresholds predicted by percolation theory. A discrepancy occurs in the two values (0.46 experimental and 0.65 theoretical). Possible reasons for the discrepancy are explored. The grain boundary network appears to be composed of two distinct sub-networks, with the 'outer' network acting as the dominant contributor to the percolating paths.




71.    Bastos, A., S. Zaefferer, et al. (2006). "Characterization of the microstructure and texture of nanostructured electrodeposited NiCo using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD)." Acta Materialia 54(9): 2451-2462.

A Co–20 at.% Ni polycrystal produced by electrodeposition has been investigated in planar and cross sections using orientation microscopy in conjunction with high-resolution scanning electron and focused ion beam microscopy. The local crystallographic texture, grain size, phase content and distribution, and grain boundary character distribution were characterized using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). This technique allows for a detailed microstructure characterization, particularly regarding the crystallographic character of the interfaces, which plays a special role in such nanostructured materials. However, the spatial resolution of 30–50 nm reduces the characterization to this regime. Exploring the limits of the spatial resolution of the EBSD method, we present a detailed study of the microstructure with the aim of better understanding the complexity of the material. The microstructure of the Co–20 at.% Ni electrodeposited polycrystal consists of columnar grains extending in the growth direction and pronounced clusters of coarse and fine grains. The columnar grains reveal inner orientation gradients along their longitudinal axis. The process parameters used for the deposition of the sample under investigation generate a strong texture, with a face-centered cubic/hexagonal cobalt phase microstructure.




72.    Bate, P. S. and J. Q. d. Fonseca (2004). "Texture development in the cold rolling of IF steel." Materials Science and Engineering A 380(1-2): 365-377.

The development of deformation texture in ferrite has been measured in cold rolled IF steel. This has been compared, in a quantitative way, to the predictions of Taylor models—including those with relaxed constraints—and a finite element model with crystal plasticity constitutive laws. The finite element model gave much better prediction of the overall levels of orientation density but failed to predict the relatively high level of {0 0 1}<1 1 0> texture which occurred at strains greater than about unity. That feature was predicted by relaxed constraint Taylor models. It is argued that that prediction is a coincidence, and either the finite element model cannot readily deal with the intragranular inhomogeneity of deformation in an adequate way, or that factors such as high-angle boundary migration may be important in the development of deformation texture.




73.    Bate, P. S. and Y. G. An (2004). "Plastic anisotropy in AA5005 Al–1Mg: predictions using crystal plasticity finite element analysis." Scripta Materialia 51(10): 973-977.

Experimental values of tensile plastic anisotropy and yield surfaces of annealed Al–1Mg sheet are compared with predictions from Taylor and crystal plasticity finite element models. Although the finite element model predictions were somewhat better, there remain discrepancies which may be due to inadequacy of the basic material model used.




74.    Bate, P. S., F. J. Humphreys, et al. (2003). "An objective study of substructural boundary alignment in aluminium." Acta Materialia 51(16): 4737-4750.

The alignment of substructure formed during deformation by rolling in Al-0.13%Mg has been investigated using electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD). The substructure in this material was defined by walls of high dislocation content, which could be imaged as low-angle boundaries. Trace distributions of those boundaries were calculated using a local Radon transform image processing method, and the boundary normal distribution estimated using data from different sections. There was no evidence for alignment of the substructural boundaries with slip planes or any other simple crystallographic element, and it seems that the substructure is orientated primarily with respect to the macroscopic or mesoscopic straining state. Copyright 2003 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 27 Refs.




75.    Bate, P. S., M. Moore, et al. (2005). Texture segregation and texture change in the biaxial stretching of AA6016. Textures of Materials - ICOTOM 14, Leuven, Belgium, Trans Tech Publications.

Sheets of the Al-Mg-Si alloy AA6016 have been prepared with different microstructures by rolling and annealing, followed by heat treatment to the T4 condition. These have been biaxially stretched using the Marciniak driving blank method, and their limit strains measured. Such biaxial stretching limits are very sensitive to inhomogeneity with length scales greater than about half the sheet thickness, and significant factors in that inhomogeneity are the materials grain size and the spatial segregation of texture. In this material, it appears that colonies of cube textured grains have an effect on the limit strains. However, there is significant change of texture during stretching and this texture evolution also needs to be considered. Finite element modelling has been used to evaluate the effects of grain size, clustering of the initial texture and texture evolution on the biaxial stretching limits.




76.    Bate, P. S., R. D. Knutsen, et al. (2005). "The characterization of low-angle boundaries by EBSD." Journal of Microscopy 220(Pt. 1): 36-46.

A method of accurately measuring misorientations by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), which is an extension of that proposed by Wilkinson and based on the comparison of diffraction patterns, is described. The method has been applied to linescans, and found to improve the angular resolution by a factor of more than 30. The consequent improvement in determining misorientation axes is also analysed. Small changes of orientation very close to some low-angle boundaries were investigated and found to be artefacts of the analysis. Measurements of the area from which diffraction patterns are generated show this to be much larger than the effective spatial resolution of EBSD, and it is concluded that this may be a limiting factor in the use of EBSD for microstructural characterization.




77.    Bate, P. S., Y. Huang, et al. (2004). "Development of the "brass" texture component during the hot deformation of Al-6Cu-0.4Zr." Acta Materialia 52(14): 4281-4289.

Texture and microstructure development during hot plane strain compression of Al-6Cu-0.4Zr has been examined using EBSD Starting with a random texture in the cast condition, the material developed a typical β-fibre texture during the early stages of plane strain compression at a temperature of 375 erature a C. At strains higher than about 2, the "brass" texture component, {011}<211>, began to dominate the texture. The development of such a texture has been observed previously in aluminium alloys, particularly when fine particles effecting Zener pinning of grain boundaries are present. In the present case, measurements indicate that grain boundary migration during deformation was responsible for the development of the strong "brass" texture.




78.    Bateni, M. R., M. Azzi, et al. (2005). The Effect of Grain Orientation on Micro Frictional of Medium Carbon Steel. Textures of Materials - ICOTOM 14, Leuven, Belgium, Trans Tech Publications.

The mechanical processing of metals results often in development of preferred orientation of grains or texture. On the other hand, the orientations of grains have a significant effect on the friction and wear behaviour of materials in contact. The objective of this investigation was to determine the crystallographic anisotropy of the coefficient of friction. Medium carbon steel AISI 1045 were selected as the substrate material. Automated orientation imaging analysis system (OIM) was used to identify orientations of grains in polycrystalline specimens. Micro-friction tests were carried out using a Tribocope, a combination of nano-mechanical probe and atomic force microscope with an electrochemical cell. The micro friction tests were performed along different crystallographic directions inside different grains.The obtained results have shown that the coefficient of friction for individual grains depends on crystallographic orientation, and that the coefficient of friction for higher atomic density planes is lower than that for lower atomic density planes.




79.    Battacharyya, A., E. El-Danaf, et al. (2001). "Evolution of grain-scale microstructure during large strain simple compression of polycrystalline aluminum with quasi-columnar grains: OIM measurements and numerical simulations." International Journal of Plasticity 17: 861-883.




80.    Battaile, C., P. G. Kotula, et al. (2005). On the evolution of friction-induced nanostructures in single crystal nickel. 2005 World Tribology Congress III, Washington, D.C., USA.

We have investigated the fundamental phenomena governing the friction-induced microstructures in single crystal nickel. Friction measurements were made using a unidirectional linear wear tester against a hard Si3N4 ball so that deformation is confined to the softer Ni surface. To minimize the environmental effects on friction, we conducted the experiments in dry nitrogen atmosphere. A high precision rotary stage was designed and built to enable friction measurements to be made in specific crystallographic directions. Measurements were made on (100), (110) and (111) crystal faces. Focused ion beam (FIB) microscopy was used to prepare cross-sections of wear scars suitable for electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses. The EBSD data revealed the formation of low-angle grain boundaries leading to the development of fine-grained equiaxed recrystallized substructues underneath the wear scars. The extent of subsurface deformation and the steady state friction coefficients were strongly dependent on the crystal orientation. At higher contact stresses, TEM analysis confirmed the formation of finegrained equiaxed nanocrystalline grain structures. Subsequent friction tests on these nanostructured layers performed at much reduced contact stresses showed significant reductions in the friction coefficients. The role of the friction-induced nanostructures on the mechanisms of metallic friction is discussed.




81.    Battige, C. K., J. Kikel, et al. (2002). Factors Affecting the Hydrogen Embrittlement Resistance of Ni-Cr-Mn-Nb Welds. Trends in Welding Research: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.

Nickel based alloys are often welded with argon/hydrogen shielding gas mixtures to minimize oxidation and improve weld quality. However, shielding gas mixtures with ≥1% hydrogen additions can result in hydrogen concentrations greater than 5 wt. ppm in the weld metal and reduce ductility via hydrogen embrittlement. For the conditions investigated, the degree of hydrogen embrittlement is highly variable between 5 and 14 wt. ppm. Investigation of hydrogen embrittlement of EN82H GTAW welds via tensile testing, light microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, orientation imaging microscopy, and thermal desorption spectroscopy shows that this variability is due to the inhomogeneous microstructure of the welds, the presence of recrystallized grains, and complex residual plastic strains. Specifically, research indicates that high residual strains and hydrogen trapping lower the ductility of Ni-Cr-Mn-Nb weld metal when dissolved hydrogen concentrations are greater than 5 wt. ppm. The inhomogeneous microstructure contains columnar dendritic, cellular dendritic, and recrystallized grains. The decreased tensile ductility observed in embrittled samples is recovered by post weld heat treatments that decrease the bulk hydrogen concentration below 5 wt. ppm.




82.    Battige, C. K., L. Brewer, et al. (2002). Quantification of Residual Plastic Strains in Ni-Cr-Mn-Nb GTAW Welds via Electron Backscatter Diffraction. Trends in Welding Research: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.

Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) was used to investigate the plastic strain distribution in a highly constrained, multipass automatic gas-tungsten-arc-weld (GTAW). The parameter used to quantify the plastic strains was the average intra-grain misorientation, which was averaged over all analyzed grains for a given region (i.e. the "amis" value). The "amis" parameter quantifies the extent to which dislocation subcells rotate the internal lattice orientation (and hence the electron diffraction pattern) from that of neighboring subcells. Quantification of the plastic strains was estimated by constructing a calibration curve from uniaxially strained tensile bars between 0 and 20% plastic strain. Similar to previous studies, results show that the amis parameter exhibits a linear correlation with plastic strain. In a highly constrained GTAW weld, residual strains ranged from near zero to similar to 14.3%. The highest strains were measured toward the root of heavy section (2" thick) narrow groove welds. Regions of high strain measured by EBSD correlate well with observations of microstructural damage and with welding induced defects. Results indicate that EBSD is a reliable method to quantify the residual plastic strains in weldments.




83.    Baudin, T. and R. Penelle (1993). "Determination of the Total Texture Function from Individual Orientations Modeled by a Lorentzian Distribution." Journal of Applied Crystallography 226(APR): 2207-213.




84.    Baudin, T. and R. Penelle (1993). "Determination of the Total Texture Function from Inidvidual Orientation Measurements by Electron Backscattering Pattern." Metallurgical Transactions A 24(10): 2299-2311.




85.    Baudin, T. and R. Penelle (1999). Simulation of recrystallization from EBSD or TEM orientation data. Twelfth International Conference on Textures of Materials (ICOTOM 12), McGill University, Montreal, Canada, NRC Research Press.




86.    Baudin, T., A. L. Etter, et al. (2005). Influence of thermo-mechanical treatments on the stored energy simulated by FEM for two low carbon steels. Textures of Materials - ICOTOM 14, Leuven, Belgium, Trans Tech Publications.

The stored energy of two cold rolled IF-Ti steels is calculated using finite element method from an EBSD microstructure. Because the thermo-mechanical treatments are different for the two materials, the parameters of the behaviour law used in the simulation and identified using a polycrystalline model and an inverse method from experimental results are also different. Their variation is due to the number of experimental tests taken into account for their identification and obviously to the thermo-mechanical path. The stored energy is mainly influenced by Lu which represents the mean free path of the mobile dislocations gliding on the system u and which is expressed as a function of a K material parameter. Using one tension test, the experimental stored energy values estimated from neutron diffraction measurements can be reproduced only for a material parameter K fixed.




87.    Baudin, T., C. Quesne, et al. (2001). "Microstructural characterization in a hot-rolled, two-phase steel." Materials Characterization 47: 365-373.

Orientation Imaging Microscopy allows characterization of the crystallographic orientation of grains in a polycrystal. Consequently, it permits one to define the grain boundary nature in each phase and between the phases when the studied material is a dual-phase material such as an austeno-ferritic steel. Moreover, as is shown in the present paper, this technique allows a good estimation of the surface fraction of each phase and their variation along the radius of a rod that comes from a ‘‘round–oval’’ groove sequence.




88.    Baudin, T., D. Devilliers, et al. (2004). "Selective electrodeposition of PbO2 on anodised-polycrystalline titanium." Electrochimica Acta 49(14): 2369-2377.

Electrochemical experiments on titanium electrodes were coupled with electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) experiments. The substrates were thermally treated and electropolished in order to have flat and reproducible polycrystalline surfaces, leading to EBSD orientation mapping. Afterwards, the samples were anodised by a galvanostatic procedure. It was shown that electrodeposition of PbO2 from a 0.5M Pb(NO3)2+2.5M HNO3 solution occurs selectively on the near {0001} grains, whereas lead electrodeposition occurs on all the grains, whatever their orientation. These results are discussed, taking into account the fact that on {0001} grains, the oxide layers are thinner than on other grains. It was concluded that electrodeposition is observed locally on Ti/TiO2 electrodes for (i) cathodic electrodeposition of metals at low overvoltage; (ii) anodic electrodeposition of PbO2, in potentiostatic or galvanostatic conditions.




89.    Baudin, T., F. Caleyo, et al. (2005). "EBSD study of hydrogen-induced cracking in API-5L-X46 pipeline steel." Scripta Materialia 52(2): 147-152.

The spatial distribution of plastic deformation and grain orientation surrounding hydrogen-induced cracks (HIC) is investigated in samples of API-5L-X46 pipeline steel using scanning electron microscopy and electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD). This work shows direct experimental evidence of the influence of microstructure, microtexture and mesotexture on HIC crack path. Copyright 2004 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.




90.    Baudin, T., F. Julliard, et al. (2000). "Simulation of Primary Recrystallization from TEM Orientation Data." Scripta Materialia 43: 63-68.




91.    Baudin, T., F. Julliard, et al. (2003). "Recrystalllzation texture development by multiple twinning in the INVAR (Fe-36%Ni) alloy." Rev Metall 100(2): 193-202+v+vii+viii.

The orientation distribution of high order twins is computed from the texture determined from neutron and EBSD measurements on a 70% cold rolled Fe-36%Ni sample. As experimentally observed, during annealing, the simulated twinned texture tends to become isotropic. Moreover, as experimentally observed and numerically verified, it appears that three twin generations develop after the complete recrystallization. Finally, if it is obvious that both the nucleation (and growth) of all possible orientations of the cold rolling texture and the multiple twinning can contribute to explain the isotropic part formation of the recrystallization texture, and it seems that this second mechanism plays an important role.




92.    Baudin, T., J. Jura, et al. (1995). "Estimation of the Minimum Grain Number for the Orientation Distribution Function Calculation from Individual Orientation Measurements on Fe-3-Percent-Si- and Ti-4Al-6V Alloys." Journal of Applied Crystallography 28(OCT): 582-589.




93.    Baudin, T., J. Jura, et al. (1996). Microtexture Analysis of a Primary Recrystallized Fe-3%Si Sheet Grade HiB from EBSD Measurements. Eleventh International Conference on Textures of Materials, Xi'an, China, International Academic Publishers.




94.    Baudin, T., M. Dahms, et al. (1996). "Intermetallic Texture Analysis by X-Ray, Neutron and Electron Backscattered Diffraction." Journal de Physique IV 6(C2): 141-146.




95.    Baudin, T., P. Paillard, et al. (1992). "Characterization of the Primary Recrystallization Texture and Grain-Boundary Properties of Fe-3-Percent-Si Sheets by Electron Backscattering Diffraction." Journal of Applied Crystallography 25(JUN): 400-408.




96.    Baudin, T., P. Paillard, et al. (1994). "Microtexture Determination in Fe-Si Alloy Sheets by Etch Pitting - Comparision with the Electron Backscattering Pattern Technique." Journal of Applied Crystallography 27(DEC): 924-933.




97.    Baudin, T., P. Paillard, et al. (1994). "Characterization of Goss Grain Crystallographic Environment in Fe 3-Percent Si Sheets (Hib Grade)." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences Serie II 319(11): 1307-1311.




98.    Baudin, T., P. Paillard, et al. (1996). "Grain Growth Simulation from Experimental Data."




99.    Baudin, T., P. Paillard, et al. (1999). "Simulation of the Anisotripic Growth of Goss Grains in Fe3%Si Sheets (Grade HiB)." Scripta Materialia 40(10): 1111-1116.




100.    Baudin, T., Y. Chastel, et al. (1997). Strain Estimation by Electron Back Scattered Diffraction. Microscopy and Microanalysis 1997, Cleveland, Ohio, Springer.




101.    Bauer, T., H. Bielefeldt, et al. (2003). "Domain formation in diamond nucleation on iridium." Diamond and Related Materials 12(3-7): 262-267.

Domain formation in epitaxial diamond nucleation on Ir(001) surfaces using the bias-enhanced nucleation (BEN) procedure has been studied. Bright areas of up to several microns lateral size with negligible topographic contrast are observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) after ion bombardment. When a growth step is applied after BEN, these domains develop into islands of identical shape consisting of epitaxial diamond with a high local area density of oriented grains. Outside the domains the nucleation density is either orders of magnitude lower or the grains are completely non-oriented. The diamond nuclei or precursors which are formed during the BEN step proved to be very stable: They still yielded oriented diamond islands when the samples were stored in air for 1 year before the growth step. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) patterns taken from inside and outside the domains immediately after BEN did not show any significant difference. This allows the conclusion that the modification of the iridium crystal lattice accompanied with diamond nucleation is either very faint or only restricted to a very thin layer at the surface. Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) measurements indicate a reduced work function within the domains




102.    Baunack, S., T. G. Kötter, et al. (2001). "AES analysis of failures in Cu based electromigration test samples." Applied Surface Science 179(No. 1-4): 245-50.

Failures occurring in electromigration test of copper interconnects have been characterized by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and scanning Auger microscopy (SAM). The Cu interconnects were 2 m wide and 500 nm thick stripes on a Ta/TaN barrier. They are imbedded in trenches in a SiO2 layer on Si. The failure manifests as the appearance of voids with lateral dimension of some micrometers. By EBSD mapping, it could be verified that no sidewall texture in the interconnect exist. Auger analysis clearly showed that the Ta/TaN barrier layer has not been destroyed at the site of electromigration failure. The interaction of the electron beam with small particles (~0.5 m) was modelled to understand the contribution of electron scattering in the voids to the lateral resolution.




103.    Bauri, R., V. Pancholi, et al. (2005). "Relating microtexture and dynamic micro hardness in an extruded AA8090 alloy and AA8090-8 vol% SiCp composite." Science and Technology of Advanced Materials 6: 933-938.

The present study involves combined measurements of microtexture and dynamic ultra micro hardness (DUH) in hot extruded AA8090 aluminum alloy and its composite reinforced with 8 vol% SiCp. Both the materials show strong crystallographic fiber textures—<111> and <001>. The dynamic micro hardness shows a clear pattern of difference between these two fiber textures,<111> oriented grains being harder and stiffer. The difference in Θ/d between the fibers, where Θ and d are the average cell misorientation and cell size, respectively, was marginal in the alloy and thus cannot explain the observed hardness difference. The hardness difference can be explained from the difference in Taylor factors between the respective fibers. Elastic stiffness values estimated from microtexture and DUH follow a similar trend qualitatively.




104.    Beane, R., J. Carpenter, et al. (2004). "Examination of an unusual grain boundary in CaF2." Physica Status Solidi C 1(11): 2983-2986.

We have examined a grain boundary in CaF2 using Phonon Imaging and Electron Backscatter Diffractometry (EBSD). Unlike the <111> twin boundary typically found in CaF2, the crystal grains on either side of the boundary are not simply related to any principle symmetry directions, and are not related to one another by symmetry operations of the cubic group. In spite of the high degree of misalignment of the crystalline lattices, phonons can pass this grain boundary without excessive energy loss. Phonon images of samples taken from different sections of the grain boundary show that the structural properties of the grain boundary are constant over a large area. Computer simulations of phonon scattering at the interface based on acoustic mismatch models demonstrate that the caustic positions are sensitive to small changes in the relative orientation of the two pieces and to the projection of the grain boundary on the image plane. EBSD gives the needed high precision measurement of the relative orientation, resulting in a superior model of phonon transmission through this very asymmetric interface. Copyright 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Weinheim.




105.    Beaudoin, A. J., A. Acharya, et al. (2000). "Consideration of Grain-Size Effect And Kinetics In The Plastic Deformation Of Metal Polycrystals." Scripta Materialia 48: 3409-3423.




106.    Beaudoin, A. J., J. A. Dantzig, et al. (2005). "High-temperature mechanical behavior and hot rolling of AA705." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 36A(2): 357-369.

High-temperature mechanical behavior and processing performance of 705X aluminum alloys is examined, employing a combination of mechanical testing, microscopy, and computational modeling. We perform hot uniaxial compression tests over a range of temperatures and strain rates and fit the data to power-law constitutive models. These models are supported and expanded by microscopy and calorimetry, which help to elucidate the operating deformation mechanisms and examine damage evolution. The mechanical behavior constitutive relations are implemented in a finite-element code to simulate the hot rolling process. The results of the rolling simulation are used to predict final product crystallographic texture, which is compared with experimental electron backscattered diffraction measurements for model validation. Finally, we propose a parameter to characterize the development of damage during processing. This work provides a solid foundation for the design of thermomechanical processing of these alloys to maximize yield and optimize process performance.




107.    Bechade, J. L., M. H. Mathon, et al. (2001). Texture analysis of oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) Fe alloys by X-ray and neutron diffraction. Rayons X et Matiere (X-rays and matter), Strasbourg, France.

The ferritic ODS alloys studied were obtained by mechanical alloying. This strengthening method is very attractive, in particular for nuclear applications. In order to ensure the alloy a good compromise between mechanical resistance and ductility at high temperatures, it is necessary to control the microstructure and in particular the evolution during the recrystallization. First, a preliminary study, performed by X ray diffraction and optical microscopy, shows several grain growth mechanisms in particular, the "abnormal" grain growth mechanism which conducts to a large grain size. After annealing (3600s at 1470 degrees C), the 30% cold-worked (swaging) alloys exhibit an heterogeneous microstructure with a large grains size (200 to 500 pm) in the heart and near the surface of the material when the intermediate zone is inhabited by small grains (1 mu m). For a higher cold-work level (60%), large size grains are only present in the periphery of the material. On account of the large grain size and strong heterogeneity of the microstructure, texture analysis using laboratory x-ray beam in not well adapted and so we have decided to use neutron beam. The neutron diffraction texture analysis has been performed at the Laboratoire Leon Brillouin on the 6TI diffractometer on 2 different rods of the alloy (corresponding to the reduction ratios of 30% and 60%). Specific samples have been machined to characterise separately the zones with a different microstructure. After deformation, the alloys exhibit a typical alpha -fibre texture (hkl)<110> whatever the area of the sample and the reduction ratio. After recrystallization, a very inhomogeneous texture is evidenced through the thickness of the sample, in particular for the rod deformed with a reduction ratio of 30%: in the heart and in the periphery of the rod, a "single-crystal" type texture is observed; the a fibre remains for the intermediate diameter of the rod. For the rod cold rolled with a reduction ratio of 60%, the alpha -fibre keeps on the heart of the material and as in the precedent case, a "single-crystal" type texture is observed near the surface of the sample. EBSD measurements have been performed to explicit at a local scale this behaviour and in order to furnish some input data for the simulation of static recrystallization.




108.    Becker, R. (1991). "Analysis of Texture Evolution in Channel Die Compression.1. Effects of Grain Interaction." Acta Metallurgica et Materialia 39(6): 1211-1230.




109.    Becker, R. (1998). "Effects of Strain Localization on Surface Roughening During Sheet Forming." Acta Materialia 46(4): 1385-1401.

Numerical simulations of evolving surface roughening in sheet have been preformed to determine the influence of microstructure and mechanical properties. The model accounts for the grain structure near the sheet surface with the behavior of the grains being characterized by a constitutive model which accounts for deformation by crystallographic slip and for rotation of the crystal lattice with deformation. In addition to the known linear dependence of surface roughening on strain and grain size, it was determined that small scale strain localization at the surface plays a significant role. Consequently, factors which affect strain localization, such as strain hardening, crystallographic texture and material homogeneity, also affect surface roughening. The results also show patterning of the strain localization which is induced by the material inhomogeneity inherent in a polycrystal.




110.    Becker, R. and H. Weiland (2000). Use of EBSD Data in Mesoscale Numerical Analyses. Electron Backscatter Diffraction in Materials Science. A. J. Schwartz, M. Kumar and B. L. Adams. New York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers: 181-95.

Experimentation, theory, and modeling have all played vital roles in defining what is known about microstructural evolution and the effects of microstructure on material properties. Recently, technology has become an enabling factor, allowing significant advances to be made on several fronts. Experimental evidence of crystallographic slip and the basic theory of crystal plasticity were established in the early 20th century, and the theory and models evolved incrementally over the next 60 years. During this time, modeling was primarily concerned with the average response of polycrystalline aggregates. While some detailed finite element modeling (FEM) with crystal plasticity constitutive relations was performed in the early 1980&apos;s, such simulations over taxed the capacity of the available computer hardware. Advances in computer capabilities led to a flurry of activity in finite element modeling in the next 10 years, thus increasing understanding of lattice orientation evolution and generating detailed predictions of spatial orientation distributions that could not be readily validated with existing experimental characterization methods. Significant advancements in material characterization, particularly automated electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), have made it possible to conduct detailed validation studies of the FEM predictions. The data collected are extensive, and many questions about the evolution of microstructure and its role in determining mechanical properties can now be addressed. It is now possible to obtain a detailed map of lattice orientations on a fine size scale. This will allow detailed quantitative comparisons of experiments and newly emerging large scale continuum FEM simulations. This capability will facilitate model validation efforts aimed at predicting deformation induced structural features, such as shear bands and cell structures, as well as predictions of the effects of grain interactions. The insight gained from the coupling of EBSD and FEM studies will provide impetus for further development of microstructure models and theories of microstructure evolution. Early studies connecting EBSD data to detailed finite element models used manual measurements to define initial orientations for the simulations. In one study, manual measurements of the deformed structure were also obtained for comparison with the model predictions. More recent work has taken advantage of automated data collection on deformed specimens as a means of collecting detailed and spatially correlated data for FEM model validation. Although it will not be discussed here, EBSD data can also be incorporated in FEM analyses in a less direct manner that is suitable for simulations where the element size is much larger than the grain size. The purpose of such models is to account for the effects of evolving material anisotropy in macro-scale simulations. In these analyses, a polycrystal plasticity model (e.g., a Taylor model or a self-consistent model), or a yield surface constructed from a polycrystal plasticity model, is used to determine the constitutive response of each element. The initial orientations used in the polycrystal plasticity model can be obtained from EBSD analyses or by fitting distributions of discrete orientations to x-ray data. The use of EBSD data is advantageous in that it is easier to account for spatial gradients of orientation distribution within a part. Another area in which EBSD data is having a great impact is on recrystallization modeling. EBSD techniques can be used to collect data for quantitative microstructural analysis (Humphreys, 1998). This data can be used to infer growth kinetics of specific orientations, and this information can be synthesized into more accurate grain growth or recrystallization models (Vogel et al., 1996). A second role which EBSD techniques may play in recrystallization modeling is in determining initial structures for the models. A realistic starting structure is vital for evaluating the models, and attempts at predicting realistic structures with finite element simulations are not yet successful. As methodologies and equipment resolution continue to improve, it is possible that measured structures will serve as input for recrystallization models. Simulations have already been run using information obtained manually from a TEM.




111.    Becker, R. and O. Richmond (1994). "Incorporation of Microstructural Geometry in Material Modeling." Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering 2(3A): 439-454.




112.    Becker, R. and S. Panchanadeeswaran (1995). "Effects of Grain Interactions on Deformation and Local Texture in Polycrystals." Acta Metallurgica et Materialia 41(7): 2701-2719.




113.    Bednarski, C., Z. Dai, et al. (2003). "Studies of heteroepitaxial growth of diamond." Diamond and Related Materials 12: 241-245.

Large-scale heteroepitaxial growth of diamond depends critically on the development of a suitable lattice-matched substrate system. Oxide substrates, notably MgO and SrTiO3, on which thin epitaxial films of iridium serve as a nucleation layer for diamond have already shown considerable promise. We describe here improvements in the growth of single crystal diamond by low-pressure microwave plasma-enhanced CVD. Oxide substrates with flat, low-index surfaces form the initial basis for the process. Iridium was deposited on heated substrates in a UHV electron-beam evaporation system resulting in epitaxial films, typically 150–300 nm thick, with Ir (1 0 0) parallel to the surface of all substrates as confirmed by X-ray and electron backscattering diffraction. Following Ir deposition, the samples were transferred to a CVD reactor where a bias-enhanced nucleation step induced a dense condensate that completely covered the Ir surface. Uniform nucleation densities of order 1012 cm-2 were observed. Interrupted growth studies, carried out at intervals from seconds to minutes subsequent to terminating the nucleation step, revealed a rapid coalescence of grains. One hour of growth resulted in a smooth, nearly featureless, (0 0 1) diamond film. For extended growth runs, slabs of diamond were grown with thickness as great as 38 mm and lateral dimensions near 4 mm. The crystals were transparent in visible light and cleaved on (1 1 1) planes along <1 1 0> directions, similar to natural diamond. Of particular significance is the successful use of sapphire as an underlying substrate. Its high crystalline perfection results in epitaxial Ir films with X-ray linewidths comparable to those grown on SrTiO3. However, Al2O3 possesses superior interfacial stability at high temperatures in vacuum or in a hydrogen plasma with a better thermal expansivity match to diamond. Since sapphire is available as relatively inexpensive large diameter substrates, these results suggest that wafer-scale growth of heteroepitaxial diamond should be feasible in the near future.




114.    Beere, W. (1980). "Inhibition of Intergranular Cavity Growth in Precipitate-Hardened Materials." Journal of Materials Science 15(3): 657-669.




115.    Bei, H. and E. P. George (2004). Microstructures and mechanical properties of NiAl-Mo composites. Integrative and Interdisciplinary Aspects of Intermetallics. Symposium, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings Vol. 842.

In-situ composites consisting of.14 vol.% continuous Mo fibers embedded in a NiAl matrix were produced by directional solidification in a xenon-arc-lamp, floating-zone furnace. The fiber spacing and size were controlled in the range 1-2 mu m and 400-800 nm, respectively, by varying the growth rate between 80 and 20 mm/h. Electron back-scatter diffraction patterns from the constituent phases revealed that the growth directions and interface boundaries exhibited the following orientation relationships: <100>NiAl<100>Moand {011} NiAl{011}Mo. The temperature dependence of the tensile strength and ductility were investigated and the NiAl-Mo composite was found to be both stronger and have a lower ductile-brittle transition temperature than the unreinforced NiAl matrix.




116.    Bei, H. and E. P. George (2005). "Microstructures and mechanical properties of a directionally solidified NiAl–Mo eutectic alloy." Acta Materialia 53(1): 69-77.

A NiAl–Mo ternary eutectic alloy, having the nominal composition Ni–45.5Al–9Mo (at.%), was directionally solidified in a high-temperature optical floating zone furnace. Well-aligned rod-like microstructures were obtained, consisting of NiAl matrix and 14% (by volume) continuous Mo fibers having a square cross-section. With increasing growth rate (from 20 to 80 mm/h), the spacing and size of the Mo fibers decreased, from similar to 2 to 1 µm (fiber spacing) and 800 to 400 nm (fiber size). X-ray microprobe analyses revealed that the NiAl matrix contained essentially no Mo (<0.1 at.%) and had the composition Ni–45.2Al (at.%), while the composition of the Mo fibers was Mo–10.1Al–3.9Ni (at.%). From electron backscatter diffraction patterns, the following orientation relationships were obtained: <1 0 0>NiAl//<1 0 0>Mo, and 0 1 1 NiAl// 0 1 1 Mo. The growth directions and Mo/NiAl interface boundaries were found to be parallel to <1 0 0> and 0 1 1, respectively, in both Mo and NiAl. Nanoindentation was used to probe the mechanical properties of the individual phases in the eutectic microstructure and the modulus and hardness of the NiAl matrix were determined to be 180 and 2.9 GPa, respectively, and those of the Mo fibers 270 and 4.8 GPa. Tensile tests were used to investigate the temperature dependence of the strength and ductility of the composite. Its ductile-to-brittle transition temperature was found to be ~675 °C, and its yield strength about 25–30% higher than that of <1 0 0> NiAl single crystals over the temperature range 600–1000 °C.




117.    Beladi, H., P. D. Hodgson, et al. (2005). "Mapping the hot deformation microstructure of Ni-30Fe alloy." ISIJ International 45(12): 1893-1896.

The evolution of structure during the hot working of an austenitic Ni-30%Fe alloy is studied using EBSD analysis of samples tested in torsion. A microstructural map in temperature-strain space that plots grain size, cell size, fracture and dynamic recrystallization is presented.




118.    Belianov, I. and P. Marmy (1998). "The Effect of Low-Dose Irradiation on the Impact Fracture Energy and Tensile Properties of Pure Iron and 2 Ferritic Martensitic Steels." Journal of Nuclear Materials 263(OCT): 1259-1263.




119.    Bender, H., L. Carbonell, et al. (2003). Orientation Imaging Microscopy Applications in Cu- Interconnects and Cu-Cu Wire Bonding. Proceedings of the 28th International Symposium for Testing and Failure Analysis, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.

In this paper we described a technique which is not commonly used for failure analysis: Orientation Imaging Microscopy (OIM). We demonstrated that it offers unique opportunity for failure analysis of Cu bonding and interconnects. Additionally to its main application: texture analysis, it can also reveal early stages of oxidation of Cu bond pads and interconnects. A link has been made between oxidation and bondability. OIM can also show areas of the wire bond where the deformation concentrates due to the bonding process.




120.    Bendersky, L. A., W. J. Boettinger, et al. (2004). "Combinatorial investigation of structural quality of Au/Ni contacts on GaN." Applied Surface Science 223(1-3): 24-29.

A combinatorial library of Au/Ni metallizations on GaN was microstructurally characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The array of single- and bi-layered metal elements of systematically varying thicknesses was deposited by electron-beam evaporation on a GaN/c-sapphire wafer. The elements with a single layer of Au on GaN had a fiber texture with <1 1 1> preferred growth orientation. TEM revealed a 2nm thick amorphous contamination layer between the Au and GaN, which prevented the gold from being epitaxial. By contrast, nickel in both the single-layered Ni and bi-layered Au/Ni elements formed epitaxially on the GaN with a (1 1 1) fcc// (0 0 0 1)hex, <1 1 0> fcc//<1 1-2 0>hex orientation relation, as observed by TEM and EBSD The Ni layer formed two types of domains related by a 60° rotation about <1 1 1>fcc, which were replicated by the Au over-layer in the Au/Ni structures. The improved structural quality of the bi-layered Au/Ni as compared to the single-layered Au was due to the removal of native contamination from the GaN surface during the initial step of Ni deposition; this promoted epitaxial growth of both metal layers. However, as the nickel interlayer thickness was increased above 5 nm, the Au/Ni structural quality decreased, as measured by increased deviations from the (1 1 1)fcc (0 0 0 1)hex orientation relation.




121.    Bennett, B. W. and H. W. Pickering (1984). "A Scanning Electron-Microscope Stage for Crystal Orientation and Structure Determination." Scripta Metallurgica 18(7): 743-748.




122.    Bennett, T. A., C.-S. Kim, et al. (2004). Five-Parameter Grain Boundary Character Distribution in Fe-1%Si. Second Joint International Conference on Recrystallization and Grain Growth, ReX & GG2, SF2M, Annecy, France, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.

The grain boundary character distribution in an Fe-1%Si steel has been measured as a function of lattice misorientation and boundary plane orientation. There is a weak texture in the space of grain boundary planes that favors the {110} orientation. At specific misorientations, the anisotropy is larger. For example, when the lattice misorientation is 60° around [111], symmetric tilt boundaries comprised of two {110} planes on either side of the interface dominate the population. The results are consistent with observations suggesting that in a range of crystalline materials, the low energy, low index surface planes are found to dominate the distribution of internal interfaces.




123.    Bera, D., S. C. Kuiry, et al. (2004). "Kinetics and Growth Mechanism of Electrodeposited Palladium Nanocrystallites." Journal of Physical Chemistry B 108(2): 556-562.

Palladium particles have been electrodeposited on AISI 316 stainless steel substrate from aqueous solution of palladium chloride. The kinetics of the electrodeposition process and growth mechanism of such three-dimensionally grown palladium particles have been studied. It has been found that the kinetics of electrodeposition of palladium follows parabolic law, which indicates involvement of instantaneous nucleation and subsequent three-dimensional growth. It was also observed that the nucleation density of palladium electrodeposits was a function of the nature of the electrode substrate. The structure, morphology, texture, chemical state, and composition of the electrodeposited palladium particles have been characterized using SEM, TEM, XPS, EDS, EBSD, and OIM. The growth of the palladium nuclei situated at the grain interior was found to be more than that at the grain boundaries on steel substrate. The micron-size electrodeposited palladium particles consisted of a number of nanocrytallites. The surface morphology of the electrodeposited palladium particles was uneven due to the preferential growth of such nanocrystallites in certain crystallographic directions. The results of the present investigation indicate that the growth of the palladium electrodeposits was limited by the diffusivity of bulky palladium tetrachloro square-planar complex from bulk solution to near the electrode surface.




124.    Berecz, T. and P. J. Szabo (2003). Study of the isothermal phase transformations in duplex stainless steels by EBSD method. 4th Hungarian Conference on Materials Science, Testing and Informatics, Balatonfured, Hungary, Trans Tech Publications.

Duplex stainless steels constitute a famous group of the family of stainless steels. They are named by their typical dual microtexture, which consists of austenite and ferrite, where both phases are present in significant quantities. This microtexture is resulted by a large number of alloying elements with low content of carbon. Because of those many components, there are a lot of typical phase transformations during different heat treatments. Electron back scatter diffraction (EBSD) is a microtexture method for obtaining electron diffraction data from bulk samples in the scanning electron microscope (SEM) which allows more accurate measurements of the microtexture than conventional imaging methods (e.g., grain size, shape, orientation and boundary misorientations). Thus EBSD gives a new dimension to study the phase transformations of duplex stainless steels. Clearing up the influence of grain orientations and boundaries can lead us to the development of materials in which phase transformations can be controlled much easier. During the experiments bulk samples of SAF-2704 superduplex stainless steel were isothermally heat treated and the phases formed as well as their coherence were studied by EBSD and EDS methods.




125.    Berecz, T. and P. J. Szabo (2005). "Misorientation between austenite and Σ -phase in duplex stainless steel." Periodica Polytechnica: Mechanical Engineering 49(2): 123-130.

Duplex steels are very interesting stainless steels. Their name originates from their special austenitic-ferritic structure. This tissue is due to the high alloying and low carbon content. During heat treatment, several phase transformation and precipitation processes take place. Electron back scattering diffraction is a relatively new investigation method, by which the individual grain orientation can be determined in the scanning electron microscope. The greatest advantage of this method is its speed: it is possible to determine a grain orientation even within 0.1 second. Therefore, in a relatively short time a large amount of data can be collected, and can be statistically evaluated. This paper reports a research work, in which SAF-2507 type duplex stainless steel samples were heat-treated isothermally, and the misorientation between the austenite and Σ-phase was calculated.




126.    Berecz, T., J. Dobranszky, et al. (2003). Energy-dispersive spectroscopy and electron backscatter diffraction analysis of isothermally aged SAF 2507 type superduplex stainless steel. 17th International Congress on X-Ray Optics and Microanalysis, Chamonix, Mont Blanc, France, Elsevier B.V.

Due to thermal effects, several precipitation and segregation processes are known in duplex stainless steels. These microstructural changes influence both of the original phases, but in different ways. Isothermal ageing in a large range of temperature was performed on SAF 2507 type steel. The temperature range was 300–1000 8C, the ageing time was between 100 s and 24 h. This paper discusses the results of ageing at 900°C. Microstructural changes were investigated by electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy and electron backscattered diffraction analysis. This technique allowed the determination of the microstructure of the secondary austenite and Σ phase and their mutual orientation properties. Beside this, thermoelectric power measurements were also performed, which gave information about the kinetics of the precipitation process. Results showed that S-phase precipitation started right after 200 s in the case of annealed steel, and faster than 100 s in the cold-rolled state. After 5000 s, the δ-ferrite disappeared. Chemical composition of Σ phase was independent on the ageing time. A small decrease in nickel content was observed with a slight increase of Cr content. Small amount of ξ phase had also been observed on the ferrite–ferrite boundaries, but later they changed into Σ phase. Similarly to S phase, ξ phase showed significant phosphorus enrichment. During ageing, small chrome nitride precipitates developed, which amount increased in time, and some vanadium could be measured in them. The orientation relationship between austenite and Σ phase deviated from Nenno-orientationship with about 248, and seems to form a [110]t[310] relationship, which was characteristic right from the beginning of the process, and remains more or less constant.




127.    Berger, D. and H. Niedrig (2002). "Energy Distribution of Electron Backscattering from Crystals and Relation to Electron Backscattering Patterns and Electron Channeling Patterns." Scanning 24(2): 70-74.

This paper reports on the influence of the channeling effect on the energy distribution of electrons backscattered from crystals with different atomic numbers Z. These results can be used for the optimization of the contrast of electron backscattering and electron channeling patterns. Energy and angular resolved electron scattering distributions are obtained using a 4-axial experimental setup with a movable high-resolution spherical spectometer. Special care is taken to suppress undesired reflections of electrons inside the spectrometer. This experimental setup allows the direct observation of the excitation of different Bloch waves (anomalous absorption and transmission) within the crystal for different electron incidence angles and the observation of angular distributions of elastically scattered electrons. Results are presented for Si and Au monocrystals, showing that the influence of the channeling effect is more distinct for low atomic numbers.




128.    Bergstrom, Y. and H. Hallen (1982). "An Improved Dislocation Model for the Stress-Strain Behavior of Polycrystalline Alpha-Fe." Materials Science and Engineering 55(1): 49-61.




129.    Besling, W. F. A., S. Courtas, et al. (2005). Extendibility of copper alloyed seed for reliability improvement. 22nd Annual Advanced Metallization Conference, AMC 2005, Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA.

In this paper a PVD copper alloyed seed and a PVD Ta-flash (similar to 5 nm) were used to improve the ALD TaN / Cu interface strength and remedy early electromigration failure. Activation energy and mean time to failure were significantly improved upon replacing the Cu-seed layer with the Cu-alloyed seed. However, the drawback of alloying copper with other elements is the potential increase of resistivity. This could become a serious problem for future technology generations where the copper resistivity starts to increase non-linearly due to electron scattering at grain boundaries and interfaces. In order to evaluate the extendibility of copper alloyed seed a series of different line widths were prepared in a PECVD SiOC type low-k dielectric varying from 1.5 µm down to 50 nm upon using a novel ALD TaN back fill approach together with state-of-the-art 65 nm technology. It is shown that the RC product could be reduced with 30 % compared to the PVD base line upon applying ALD in combination with a copper alloyed seed. EBSD measurements were carried out to explain the small effect on the line resistance upon using a copper alloyed seed. It is shown that the grain size of an electroplated copper film is significantly enlarged upon using a copper alloyed seed layer.




130.    Besser, P. R., E. Zschech, et al. (2001). "Microstructural Characterization of Inlaid Copper Interconnect Lines." Journal of Electronic Materials 30(4): 320-330.

The microstructure of inlaid Cu lines has been quantified as a function of annealing conditions, post-plating, and post-CMP. The grain size distribution was measured using the median intercept method, crystallogrphic texture was characterized by pole figure analysis, and mechanical stress was determined using x-ray diffraction. The median grain size and mechanical stress level increase with increasing anneal temperature. The crystallographic texture is independent of the anneal temperature and is predominantly (111) with a small fraction of sidewall-nucleated (111) grains. The (111) grains nucleated from the trench bottom have a preferred in-plane orientation. The grain growth in the trench is independent of that in the overburden.




131.    Besser, P. R., J. E. Sanchez, et al. (1997). The Microstructure and Electromigration Performance of Damascene-Fabricated Aluminum Interconnects. MRS - Spring Meeting, San Francisco.




132.    Besser, P. R., J. John E. Sanchez, et al. (1997). The linewidth dependence of microstructure in damascene-fabricated aluminum interconnects. Advanced Metallization and Interconnect Systems for ULSI Applications in 1996. R. Havemann, J. Schmitz, H. Komiyama and K. Toubochi. XII: 89-95.




133.    Bestmann, M., D. J. Prior, et al. (2004). "Development of single-crystal σshaped quartz porphyroclasts by dissolution-precipitation creep in a calcite marble shear zone." Journal of Structural Geology 26(5): 869-883.

Within a greenschist facies calcite marble shear zone, isolated quartz grains change shape across the shear zone profile. Whereas quartz grains have a spherical to elongated shape in the coarse grained marble protolith and protomylonite, they are asymmetric Σ-shaped porphyroclasts with wedge shaped appendages (wings) in ultramylonites. In all cases quartz grains are single- crystals. They are sometimes twinned but never recrystallized. Stress- induced dissolution-precipitation creep is the favourable shape- controlling process during deformation providing a relatively undeformed core, truncation of pre-existing cathodoluminescence (CL) patterns and syntaxial precipitation of wings. The necessary fluids may have been released from fluid inclusions during dynamic recrystallization of the calcite matrix. The development of Σ -shape is not related to the crystallographic orientation of the quartz porphyroclasts. Crystallographic orientation analysis by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and CL analyses exclude crystal- plasticity as a shape-controlling mechanism of quartz grains during mylonitisation. However, in ultramylonites quartz clasts have a strong crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO), with c -axes (sub) parallel to the shear direction. This fabric is uncommon for quartz under greenschist facies conditions. It might be explained by a strengthening of a pre-existing weak CPO during mylonitisation by rigid particle rotation of elongated quartz grains.




134.    Bestmann, M., D. J. Prior, et al. (2006). "Characterisation of deformation and flow mechanics around porphyroclasts in a calcite marble ultramylonite by means of EBSD analysis." Tectonophysics 413(3-4): 185-200.

This paper studies the flow heterogeneity around porphyroclasts associated with greenschist facies deformation of a calcite marble shear zone. Microstructural data from electron backscatter diffraction analyses (EBSD) are used to constrain the flow mechanics of this dominantly non-coaxial type of deformation. The microstructure of the undisturbed ultramylonite (grain-size range 5-100 µm, mean. 40 µm) is interpreted to represent steady-state (time-independent) flow conditions with flow planes parallel to the shear zone boundary. Single calcite porphyroclasts (grain-size 1-3 mm) caused flow perturbation in the fine-grained marble ultramylonite. It is the shape, in particular, of these rigid porphyroclasts that controls their rotational behaviour during deformation and, therefore, the development of specific flow fabrics. The flow planes around elongated-rhomboidal, stable porphyroclasts change the orientation to become roughly parallel to the porphyroclast margin, whereas the geometry of flow planes around nearly equant, rotating porphyroclasts describes a 6-type flow pattern. We infer that to some extent decoupling at the clast matrix interface has occurred to guarantee a stable orientation of elongated porphyroclasts, but was not sufficient to reduce the rotation rate of equant clasts to zero. According to the flow deflection, the general crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) with its single c-axis maximum perpendicular to the flow plane is rotated about an axis which is (sub)parallel to the kinematic rotation axis of the shear zone. Ultramylonite microstructures, CPOs and misorientation data are best explained by the dual operation of grain-size-insensitive (dislocation creep with recovery and recrystallization) and grain-size-sensitive (diffusion creep) mechanisms. The limited grain-size reduction around porphyroclasts suggests that the grain-size-insensitive mechanisms controlled theology.




135.    Bestmann, M., K. Kunze, et al. (2000). "Evolution of a calcite marble shear zone complex on Thassons Island, Greece: microstructural and textural fabics and their kinematic significance." Journal of Structural Geology 22: 1789-1807.

The deformation history of a monophase calcite marble shear zone complex on Thassos Island, Northern Greece, is reconstructed by detailed geometric studies of the textural and microstructural patterns relative to a fixed reference system (shear zone boundary, SZB). Strain localization within the massive marble complex is linked to decreasing P-T conditions during the exhumation process of the metamorphic core complex. Solvus thermometry indicates that temperatures of 300-350°C prevailed during part of the shear zone deformation history. The coarse-grained marble protolith outside the shear zone is characterized by symmetrically oriented twin sets due to early coaxial deformation. A component of heterogeneous non-coaxial deformation is first recorded within the adjacent protomylonite. Enhanced strain weakening by dynamic recrystallization promoted strong localization of plastic deformation in the ultramylonite of the calcite shear zone, where high strain was accommodated by non-coaxial flow. This study demonstrates that both a pure shear and a simple shear strain path can result in similar crystallographic preferred orientations (single c-axis maximum perpendicular to the SZB) by different dominant deformation mechanisms. Separated a-axis pole figures (+a- and -a-axis) show different density distributions with orthorhombic texture symmetry in the protolith marble and monoclinic symmetry in the ultramylonite marble consistently with the observed grain fabric symmetry.




136.    Betsofen, S. Y. and A. L. Lapin (2004). Inhomogeneity of Texture, Particle Precipitation and Grain Size under Recrystallization of Al-Mg, Al-Mg-Li and Al-Mg-Sc Alloys. Second Joint International Conference on Recrystallization and Grain Growth, ReX & GG2, SF2M, Annecy, France, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.




137.    Beyerlein, I. J., S. Li, et al. (2005). "Non-uniform microstructure and texture evolution during equal channel angular extrusion." Philosophical Magazine 85(13): 1359-1394.

Intense plastic deformation during equal-channel angular extrusion (ECAE) can occur in a broad region at the channel die intersection called the plastic deformation zone (PDZ). When the outer corner of the ECAE die is rounded, PDZs deviate from the model of single-plane simple shear, causing flow to be inhomogeneous. In this work, we explore the validity of using an analytical description of the PDZ by comparing model predictions against finite element (FE) simulations using various material and friction conditions and orientation imaging microscopy (OIM) measurements on ECAE one-pass copper. Inhomogeneous deformation divided the sample into two distinct regions across the sample thickness, wherein the accumulated strain, velocity gradient, texture evolution, and microstructural features are distinct. We demonstrate that intense deformation in the upper part is described well by sequences of simple shearing in a central fan and deformation in the lower part by a combination of low-intensity shear and rigid body rotation. Texture predictions by FE provided the same result as the PDZ model and OIM for the upper part, regardless of the friction and strain hardening variables considered. However, texture results for the lower part were sensitive to choices of friction and strain hardening. Though an idealization, this analytical two-region PDZ model, once characterized, can lend insight and be computationally efficient for multi-pass predictions.




138.    Bezencon, C., M. Hobel, et al. (2003). Single-crystal laser cladding of superalloys: influence of preheating on the microstructure. Electron Microscopy: Its Role in Materials Science. Mike Meshii Symposium. Proceedings of a Symposia, San Diego, CA, USA, TMS - Miner. Metals & Mater. Soc.

The oxidation resistance of a single-crystalline Ni-base superalloy can be improved by the application of a protective layer of NiCrAlY alloy. However, current processes such as plasma spraying, produce a poly crystalline layer leading to a reduced thermo-mechanical fatigue strength of the component, due to the difference in E-modulus between clad and substrate. Therefore, a new processing allowing the deposition of a single-crystal oxidation resistant coating has been developed. In this process, the alloy powder is melted by a high intensity laser beam and solidified epitaxially onto the single crystal substrate. For a successful single-crystal deposition, nucleation and growth of misorientated grains such as stray grains must be avoided. In this paper, the influence of the substrate preheating temperature on the formation of stray crystals is experimentally determined using Electron Back-Scattering Diffraction (EBSD). It is shown that with a preheating temperature of 750 degrees C, nucleation of misoriented grains occurs in the remelted zone of the substrate and develops, into a columnar mode in the NiCrAlY layer. Processing without preheating avoids nucleation of new grains and leads to single-crystal deposition. The experimental observations are discussed with the aid of an analytical model of the columnar-to-equiaxed transition (CET).




139.    Bezencon, C., M. Konter, et al. (2001). Microstructure development in laser cladding of single crystal nickel based alloys. Lasers in Manufacturing 2001. Proceedings of the First International WLT-Conference on Lasers in Manufacturing, Munich, Germany, German Sci. Laser Soc.

The microstructure development during laser cladding of a single-crystal superalloy is investigated. The solidification of the melt pool is analysed and related to the grain structure of the deposited layer, characterised by electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD). Solidification phenomena like loss of epitaxy, columnar to equiaxed transition and dendritic growth direction transition are treated. It is shown that a single-crystal cladding can be produced when epitaxial growth of columnar dendrites is achieved during the whole process.




140.    Bhattacharjee, D. and C. L. Davis (2002). "Influence of processing history on mesotexture and microstructure-toughness relationship in control-rolled and normalised steels." Scripta Materialia 47(12): 825-831.

This paper studies the effect of processing history on grain boundary misorientation angles in steels and investigates the relationship between microstructure and impact transition behaviour. For normalised steel, fracture is directly related to the metallographic two-dimentional microstructure, however, for thermomechanical controlled rolling steel grain boundary misorientation needs to be taken into account.




141.    Bhattacharjee, P. P., R. K. Ray, et al. (2005). "Development of cube texture in pure Ni, Ni–W and Ni–Mo alloys prepared by the powder metallurgy route." Scripta Materialia 53: 1477-1481.

Development of textures after heavy cold rolling (~ 95%) and annealing were studied in powder metallurgically prepared pure Ni, Ni–5at.%W and Ni–5at.%Mo alloys. It has been found that W and Mo additions to Ni are beneficial for the development of sharp cube texture, although W has a much more pronounced effect than Mo.




142.    Bhattacharyya, A., D. Rittel, et al. (2005). "Effect of strain rate on deformation texture in OFHC copper." Scripta Materialia 52(7): 657-661.

A strong strain rate dependence on the crystallographic texture of oxygen-free high conductivity copper is observed and reported for the first time. Two shear compression specimens were deformed at widely different strain rates (0.001 s-1 and 7000 s-1) to the same strain, and their textures were determined using orientation image microscopy. By comparing the stress-strain curves and the major texture components at the two strain rate levels, it is realized that increase in strain rate causes increase in strain hardening which thereby influences the texture.




143.    Bhattacharyya, A., G. Ravichandran, et al. (2006). "Strain rate effect on the evolution of deformation texture for α-Fe." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 37(4): 1137-1145.

The effect of strain rate on the deformation texture of alpha-iron (α-Fe) is studied at different strain levels during the deformation. Two shear compression specimens (SCS) were deformed in three consecutive stages at room temperature, one at 10-3/s and the other at 10+3/s, to the same strain level. The crystallographic textures were determined using electron backscattered diffraction. The textures at each deformation stage were found to be unaffected by the wide variations in strain rate. By comparing the stress-strain curves and crystallographic texture at the two strain rate levels, it is realized that for α-Fe there is no marked increase in strain hardening at high strain rate with respect to quasi-static tests, so that the deformation texture remains unchanged. The temperature increase that develops at high strain rates is deemed to sharpen the texture.




144.    Bieler, T. R. and S. L. Semiatin (2002). "The origins of heterogeneous deformation during primary hot working of Ti–6Al–4V." International Journal of Plasticity 18: 1165-1189.

A Ti–6Al–4V cylindrical specimen with a large grain colony microstructure was upset forged to 35% reduction at 815°C at a nominal strain rate of 0.1 s-1. An orientation imaging microscopy (OIM) analysis was conducted in two representative areas, near the center with an estimated von Mises strain of 1.6, and 0.8 about midway from the center to the outer edge. The process of physically breaking up the lamellar microstructure (globularization) was examined, focusing on how the globularization efficiency was affected by the initial colony orientation. Microstructural maps based upon the electron backscattered pattern quality, crystal orientation, and an estimated Taylor factor (using a continuum assumption) were used to identify and quantify heterogeneous deformation phenomena. These analyses show that in regions where both prism and basal slip systems were not operational, macro shear bands developed, leading to kinked lamellar microstructural features. The shear bands concentrated shear in localized regions that were able to flow easily around remaining hard regions, leaving remnants of the hard regions intact. Also, development of large misorientations of 50–90° from the parent grain arising from a transformation from b to a are quantified and related to the globularization efficiency.




145.    Bieler, T. R., M. A. Crimp, et al. (2004). Prediction of crack paths based upon detailed microstructure characterization in a near-γ TiAl Alloy. Materials Damage Prognosis - a Symposium of the Materials Science and Technology 2004 Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.

Fracture in a duplex γ -TiAl alloy with equiaxed grains has been studied. The crack path in a notched Mode I crack growth specimen was analyzed using a combination of orientation imaging microscopy and selected angle channeling patterns (to obtain the true c-axis orientation in each grain). A phenomenological fracture propagation parameter incorporating the contributions from deformation twinning and ordinary dislocation systems has been developed that is capable of identifying boundaries that are likely to nucleate microcracks. This fracture propagation parameter was then used to analyze the existing crack path to identify why sharp turns in the crack path occurred. With this understanding, grain boundaries in the microstructure ahead of the crack tip were analyzed to predict the expected fracture path, and to compare it to the actual crack path. Based upon this parameter, criteria for crystal orientations and misorientations for high toughness microstructures are proposed.




146.    Bieler, T. R., M. A. Crimp, et al. (2005). "Fracture initiation/propagation parameters for duplex TiAl grain boundaries based on twinning, slip, crystal orientation, and boundary misorientation." Intermetallics 13(9): 979-984.

The role of mechanical twinning in microcrack nucleation and crack propagation in a near-γ TiAl alloy was characterized using 4-point bend tests and analyzed with advanced electron microscopy techniques. Smooth bend specimens were used to examine microcrack nucleation prior to fracture, and notched bend specimens were used to examine crack propagation. A combination of selected area channeling patterns and electron backscattered diffraction pattern maps were used to identify grain orientations in regions of microstructure surrounding microcracks or growing cracks. Microcracks were observed, where twins on highly stressed twinning systems intersected certain grain boundaries. An anisotropic elastic analysis of a tri-crystal showed that local stresses near boundaries can vary by as much as 45%, which may enhance microcracking in the presence of deformation defects. To determine why some twin boundary intersections resulted in cracking, but not others, a fracture initiation parameter was developed to identify how efficiently slip can be transferred across the boundary. Cracks were found to be more prevalent when this parameter is large, which occurs when the twin Burgers vector is closely aligned with the direction of maximum tensile stress and when the twin Burgers vector is somewhat aligned with other slip systems that could accommodate the twin strain in the neighboring grain. The orientation of the grain boundary plane has little effect. On the basis of a fracture initiation parameter, it is possible to predict the path of cracks knowing only the primary tensile stress axis and spatially resolved grain orientations.




147.    Bieler, T. R., P. D. Nicolaou, et al. (2005). "An Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of the Effect of Local Colony Orientations and Misorientation on Cavitation during Hot Working of Ti-6Al-4V." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 36A(1): 129-140.

Orientation in aging microscopy was used to determine the effect of local crystallographic texture on the size of cavities formed during hot tension testing at 815°C and a strain rate of 0.1 s–1 in Ti-6Al- 4V with a colony–a microstructure. Cavities nucleated preferentially in the a–? interface along prior–? grain boundaries that were perpendicular to the tension axis, adjacent to colonies with a (hard) c-axis colony orientation parallel to the tension axis. Cavity growth was most rapid at locations where 20 to 40 pct of the area surrounding the cavity also had colonies with soft orientations (with the c axis inclined to the tension axis). The constraint of the hard orientations and the strongly incompatible anisotropic deformation by prism and basal slip in the softer orientations appeared to facilitate cavity nucleation and growth in these local regions. To interpret these observations, a simple model was developed to quantify the effect of the misorientation between neighboring colonies on the partitioning of strain between them and the development of a local stress triaxiality. Estimates of the local strains and stress states were then incorporated into a plasticity-controlled cavity-growth model to estimate the cavity-growth rate, and thus cavity sizes. Predicted cavity sizes following initiation were very sensitive to the local strain and the hydrostatic stress through its effect on the cavity-growth parameter. The model was successful in differentiating growth rates according to local values of the Taylor factor.




148.    Bieler, T., R. L. Goetz, et al. (2005). "Anisotropic plasticity and cavity growth during upset forging of Ti–6Al–4V." Materials Science and Engineering A 405(1-2): 201-213.

Orientation imaging microscopy was used to determine the effect of local crystallographic texture on the nucleation and growth of cavities in Ti–6Al–4V with a colony-α microstructure during upset forging to a 35% height reduction at 815°C and a strain rate of 0.1 s−1. In contrast to uniaxial deformation, the stress–strain history in the bulged equatorial region was complex. Cavities developed preferentially along prior-ß grain boundaries nominally perpendicular to principal stress directions, particularly where there were 90° colony misorientations, even in regions where global secondary-tension stresses were small or even negative. High cavity nucleation and growth rates were strongly correlated with the 90°-misoriented colonies, regardless of the orientations of the adjacent colonies. A rationale was developed to account for the particular sensitivity of 90°-misorientations based on colony orientation, slip systems, Taylor and Schmid factors, strain ratio and deformation history. Colonies with orientations in which prism slip was highly favored were stable and exhibited strong plastic anisotropy. When a neighboring colony had a 90°-misorientation, highly non-uniform strains developed in the boundaryregion, resulting in large triaxial stress concentrations that facilitated cavity nucleation and plastic strain conditions that favored cavity growth.




149.    Bingert, J. F., R. J. Hanrahan, Jr., et al. (2003). "Microtextural investigation of hydrided α-uranium." Journal of Alloys and Compounds 365(1-2): 138-148.

The local orientation features in as-cast α-uranium were investigated in order to ascertain the influence of texture and heterogeneity in the microstructure on hydride initiation and growth. Several samples were interrogated via automated electron back-scattered diffraction measurements in the post-hydride state. Characterization included orientation mapping, deformation twin identification, and grain boundary analysis. It was found that preferential hydride initiation sites were associated with general high-angle grain boundaries, low-angle boundaries, and twin boundaries of two systems. Linear segregation or precipitation features suggest the existence of unresolved twins that could be correlated with many of the remaining hydrides. The tendency of certain orientations to exhibit differing hydride potentials based on atomic density in the habit plane was also considered. The results suggest the dominant role of enhanced sub-surface hydrogen diffusion at misoriented regions in controlling hydride nucleation and growth.




150.    Bingert, J. F., T. A. Mason, et al. (2000). Anisotropic Plasticity Modeling Incorporating EBSD Characterization of Tantalum ad Zirconium. Electron Backscatter Diffraction in Materials Science. A. J. Schwartz, M. Kumar and B. L. Adams. New York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers: 213-27.




151.    Bingert, J. F., T. A. Mason, et al. (2002). "Deformation Twinning in Polycrystalline Zr: Insights from Electron Backscattered Diffraction Characterization." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 33(March): 955-963.

The response of polycrystalline α -zirconium to various deformation conditions was investigated through electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) characterization. The range of deformation conditions included quasi-static compression and tension at room and cryogenic temperatures, along with a Taylor cylinder impact experiment. The resultant data provided spatial resolution of individual twin system activity as a function of the progression of deformation. Over 300 deformation twins were analyzed to identify the type of twin system and active variant, along with the Schmid factor in the parent orientation. These data supplied information on the distribution of Schmid factor and variant rank as a function of twin system and deformation condition. Results showed significant deviation from a maximum Schmid factor activation criterion and suggest deformation twinning is greatly affected by local internal stress heterogeneities and the sense of the applied stress.




152.    Bingert, S. R., V. D. Vargas, et al. (1994). Powder Processing of Tantalum. Tungsten and Refractory Metals, McClean, Virginia.




153.    Biro, T. and P. J. Szabo (2003). Effect of thermo-mechanical fatigue on the microstructure of steels. 4th Hungarian Conference on Materials Science, Testing and Informatics, Balatonfured, Hungary, Trans Tech Publications.

15Mo3 heat resistant steel specimens were subjected to cyclic heating-cooling process meanwhile the deformation was restricted. The number of thermal cycles modeled the different lifetimes of the samples. After the above mentioned loading, samples were investigated by scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM) and electron back scattering diffraction (EBSD). Results showed that at the beginning of the process several sub-grains were formed because of the large number of dislocations initially present in the material. Carbides pinned these dislocations, therefore sub-grain boundaries could not move, but instead, more and more dislocation piled up at them. Finally, the angle difference between sub-grains reached a critical value and the metallographic grain size seemed to decrease. These results help us to understand more about the thermal fatigue process and to develop more accurate residual life assessment methods.




154.    Birosca, S. and R. L. Higginson (2003). Study of Scale Growth on Steel Substrates Using Electron Back Scatter Diffraction. Thermec' 2003, Leganés, Madrid, Spain, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.

Heating of steels causes oxide layers to form on the surface of the metal. These scales have complex microstructures made up of a number of layers, the composition and structure of which depend on a large number of variables, e.g. temperature, time, atmosphere and alloying elements. The current study has used electron back scatter diffaction (EBSD) to study these complex microstructures with a view to increasing the understanding of their formation and mechanical properties during processing of steel components.




155.    Birosca, S., D. Dingley, et al. (2004). "Microstructural and microtextural characterization of oxide scale on steel using electron backscatter diffraction." Journal of Microscopy 213(Pt 3): 235-240.

High-temperature oxidation of steel has been extensively studied. The microstructure of iron oxides is, however, not well understood because of the difficulty in imaging it using conventional methods, such as optical or electron microscopy. A knowledge of the oxide microstructure and texture is critical in understanding how the oxide film behaves during high-temperature deformation of steels and more importantly how it can be removed following processing. Recently, electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD) has proved to be a powerful technique for distinguishing the different phases in scales. This technique gives valuable information both on the microstructure and on the orientation relationships between the steel and the scale layers. In the current study EBSD has been used to investigate the microstructure and microtexture of iron oxide layers grown on interstitial free steel at different times and temperatures. Heat treatments have been carried out under normal oxidation conditions in order to relate the results to real steel manufacturing in industry. The composition, morphologies, microstructure and microtexture of selected conditions have been studied using EBSD




156.    Biscondi, M. (1982). "Structure and Mechanical-Properties of Grain-Boundaries." Journal de Physique 43(NC-6): 293-310.




157.    Black, M. P. and R. L. Higginson (1999). "An investigation into the use of electron back scattered diffraction to measure recrystallised fraction." Scripta Materialia 41(2): 125-129.

Introduction: The Electron Back-Scattered Diffraction (EBSD) technique is in its infancy and is a highly promising area of development. Use of EBSD has been predominately for the determination of crystallographic textures. Other applications have also been considered, which include: crystal structure determination, phase determination, grain boundary studies (1,2) and both elastic and plastic deformation measurement (3,4). Although it has been acknowledged that an important use of the EBSD could be in the measurement of recrystallisation and its kinetics there are a number of inherent problems with such measurements using EBSD. These problems include the ability of the system to index deformed microstructures even those on a fine scale, the difficulties of analysing patterns in the region of grain boundaries and the problems of sample preparation which is critical in the quality of the diffraction patterns obtained. The aim of the present study is to determine whether it is possible to measure the volume fraction recrystallised using EBSP of partially recrystallised stainless steel. This has been done by investigation of the quality of matching between the observed and calculated diffraction patterns, and the quality of the observed patterns measured in terms of their contrast.




158.    Blake, K., C. Buchan, et al. (2006).  "Crystal-plastic deformation of zircon: A defect in the assumption of chemical robustness." Geology 34(4): 257-260.

Orientation contrast imaging and quantitative electron backscatter diffraction analysis of a zircon collected from an Indian Ocean gabbro reveal intragrain crystallographic misorientations (up to 14 arly Arch) and low-angle orientation boundaries concentrated in the zircon tips. These features represent the formation and migration of dislocations and provide the first evidence of crystal-plastic deformation of zircon under crustal conditions. Panchromatic and wavelength cathodoluminescence (CL), combined with quantitative rare earth element (REE) ion microprobe analyses, demonstrate modification of zircon REE chemistry within the areas of crystal plasticity. These data indicate that the enhanced diffusion of REEs into the zircon is spatially linked to the presence of dislocations that behave as high-diffusivity pathways, increasing bulk diffusion rates and effective diffusion distances in the zircon by several orders of magnitude. In addition, discrete similar to 2 µm zones of reduced panchromatic CL correspond exactly to the position of low-angle orientation boundaries and demonstrate a defect dependence on CL signal at high dislocation densities. The presence of deformation-related crystal-plastic microstructures in zircon, and their role in modifying elemental diffusion, questions the commonly made assumption of chemical robustness and has fundamental implications for the interpretation of zircon trace-element and isotopic data.




159.    Blander, A. J. (2004). Transformation phenomena in superplastic aluminum 7475, McGill University (Canada). M.Eng.: 88.

The process of superplastic forming in 7475 aluminum alloy was analyzed using orientation imaging microscopy (OIM), x-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). These techniques were used to determine the effect of the superplastic forming on texture, grain boundary character distribution (GBCD), grain size, residual stress and microstructure at different stages of the deformation of specimens deformed in tension. Results indicate that a microstructure is transformed mainly by the grain boundary sliding process that is responsible for rapid randomization of texture. There is also much evidence for crystallographic slip occurring in conjunction with grain boundary sliding. Accommodation of superplastic flow is linked to increased dislocations density in the lattice. At a threshold level, the dislocation density reaches certain saturation level and the nucleation of voids starts. At this threshold strain, the deformation mechanism is altered and superplastic flow proceeds, however, cavities continue to be produced and coalesce due to the grain boundary sliding process. A precipitate free zone is observed during deformation. This zone is more plastic and presents an orientational difference when compared to the grain interior. It is theorized that this precipitate free zone aids in the accommodation of GBS and plays a role in the cavitation process. The Kernel average misorientation function of OIM was used to indicate the level of strain within the grains to explain the formation of cavities.




160.    Blankenship, J., C. P., M. Larsen, et al. (1995). "Deformation and Fracture of NiAl Single Crystals Tested in Torsion." Acta Metallurgica et Materialia 43(4): 1549-1558.




161.    Blicharski, M., J. Jura, et al. (2005). "Development of the Orientation Relationship Between Fwrritic and Austenitic Phases During Long Time Annealing of Duplex Stainless Steel." Archives of Metallurgy and Materials 50(1): 495-502.

The paper presents an analysis of the orientation relationship development between ferritic and austenitic phases during long time annealing. The investigated material was duplex stainless steel. After cold-rolling with 80% reduction in thickness the samples were annealed at temperature 1050 deg C for 1, 10, 100 and 1000 h. The microstructure and texture were examined by optical microscopy, SEM / EBSD technique as well as X-Ray diffraction. It was found that the occurance of the special misorientation (Kurdyumow- Sachs relationship) between ferrite and austenite grains increased with annealing time. The development of texture components in the austenitic and the ferritic phases has been also analysed.




162.    Blicharski, M., J. Liu, et al. (1995). "Annealing of Aluminum Bicrystals with S-Orientations Deformed by Channel Die Compression." Acta Metallurgica et Materialia 43(8): 3125-3138.




163.    Blochwitz, C. and R. Richter (1999). "Plastic strain amplitude dependent surface path of microstructurally short fatigue cracks in face-centred cubic metals." Materials Science and Engineering A 267(1): 120-129.

The dependence of fatigue crack initiation and propagation of microstructurally short cracks on plastic strain amplitude and grain orientation was investigated for cyclically deformed nickel and austenitic stainless (316L) steel. The damage potential of different crack types was studied. It is shown that grain orientation influences crack path and propagation rate of growing microstructurally short cracks in polycrystalline face-centred cubic (f.c.c.) metals. Transcrystalline crack paths follow amplitude-dependently low-indexed crystal plane traces, but not always slip plane traces as sometimes supposed in literature.




164.    Blochwitz, C. and W. Tirschler (2003). "Influence of texture on twin boundary cracks in fatigued austenitic stainless steel." Materials Science and Engineering A 339(1-2): 318-327.

It is well-known that crack initiation in fatigued austenitic steel (316L) specimens is dominated at lower deformation amplitudes by twin boundaries (TBs). For medium plastic strain amplitudes, it is shown here that the propagation of short cracks starting at TBs can be explained when both the surface tractions caused by elastic anisotropy as well as the related slip processes are considered. This conclusion has been obtained from grain orientation measurements along damaged TBs using the electron backscatter diffraction technique in the scanning electron microscope. The frequency of the damaged TBs strongly depends on the meso-texture given by the distribution of 60° <111> rotation axes of the twins in the pole figure. The texture was determined by automatic orientation mapping. Specimens, which were machined transverse to the rolling direction of the plate, show more damaged TBs than those machined parallel. Consequently, the risk of TB cracks can be reduced by favorable alignment of the specimens with respect to the rolling direction.




165.    Blochwitz, C. and W. Tirschler (2005). "Twin boundaries as crack nucleation sites." Crystal Research and Technology 40(1-2): 32-41.

Coherent twin boundaries (TBs) in f.c.c. metals are considered to have low energy. Nevertheless, even TBs are preferred sites for crack nucleation in materials loaded at very small alternating plastic strain amplitudes (high cycle fatigue). In the present paper, the mechanism of short crack propagation starting from TBs was studied for medium amplitudes and described taking into account both elastic and plastic anisotropy effects. A strong dependence of the TB crack density on the meso-texture of the material was found. The twin part of the meso-texture was described by the < 111 > rotation vectors of the TBs observed using the EBSD technique in the SEM. The rotation vectors of the damaged TBs were arranged in a "damaging cone" around the specimen axis. The risk of TB cracks in texturized rolling plates can be reduced by a favourable alignment of the specimen in the rolling plate avoiding the damaging cone of rotation vectors.




166.    Blochwitz, C., J. Brechbuehl, et al. (1996). "Analysis of activated slip systems in fatigued nickel polycrystals using the EBSD-technique in the scanning electron microscope." Materials Science and Engineering A 210(1-2): 42-47.

By comparison of the observed trace angles of active slip planes with the expected traces in plastically deformed metal polycrystals conclusions for the local stress state within the grains of polycrystalline aggregates can be drawn. The expected slip systems can be calculated when the local stress tensor and the orientation of the crystallites in the specimen space are known. In fatigued nickel polycrystals, the crystal orientation was determined by the EBSD (electron backscattering diffraction) method in the scanning electron microscope. It was shown that at the relatively small plastic strains under fatigue conditions the crystalline interactions do not essentially influence the local stress state in the grains, but the external uniaxial stress tensor remains valid in good approximation.




167.    Blochwitz, C., R. Richter, et al. (1997). "The effect of local textures on microcrack propagation in fatigued f.c.c. metals." Materials Science and Engineering A 234-236: 563-566.




168.    Bocher, P., M. Jahazi, et al. (2004). β Microtexture analysis in correlation with hcp textured regions observed in a forged near a titanium alloy. 2nd International Conference on Texture and Anisotropy of Polycrystals (ITAP 2), Metz, France, Balaban Publishers; Scitec Publications, Switzerland.

The presence of hcp regions with grains having relatively close orientations has been reported in commercial near α titanium billets (IMI 834, Ti 6246, etc). The size of these textured regions (called macrozones) is significantly larger than the average grain size of the microstructure observed after thermomechanical processing. The elongated shape of these large hcp regions suggests that they are eventually related to large prior β grains that pancaked during the ingot break down process. In this contribution, orientation image microscopy was used to study the relationship between the hcp local microtexture heterogeneities and the prior β orientations. Specifically, the orientations of the primary (equiaxed) αp grains and the secondary (lamellar) as colonies produced after the transformation of the β phase were discriminated from OIM maps. Furthermore, from the αs inherited OIM map, it was possible to reconstruct the corresponding beta OIM map over large regions. The analysis showed that the large hcp macrozones observed in the as received material are not related to corresponding bcc macrozones. However, within an hcp macrozone, various clusters of β grains with similar orientations can be found. In such coherent β regions, randomly orientated β grains were also observed, which could be related to microstructural changes during deformation (continuous dynamic recrystallization) as suggested by hot deformation results.




169.    Bocos, J. L., E. Novillo, et al. (2003). "Aspects of Orientation-Dependent Grain Growth in Extra-Low Carbon and Interstitial-Free Steels during Continuous Annealing." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 34A(No. 3A): 827-840.

The present work concentrates on the application of orientation imaging microscopy (OIM) based on the electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) technique to the investigation of the microstructural evolution of an extra-low carbon (ELC) steel and a Ti-Nb-bearing interstitial-free (IF) steel, during continuous annealing. Aspects like the nucleation, the evolution of the recrystallized volume fraction and grain size of grains with different orientations, the interface area limiting recrystallized {111} regions, and the apparent growth rates have been considered. Different criteria have been applied in order to identify crystallites produced during annealing. During the first stages of annealing, a network of grain boundaries with misorientations higher than 10 deg is produced, mainly inside the deformed y-fiber grains. The crystallites formed within this network, free from cells or subgrains at their interiors, can be considered as potential nuclei. However, among all, only some of them become effective due to an important selection. The {111} recrystallized grains have a significant size and number advantage as compared with other texture components, and a hard impingement between clusters of {111} grains is produced during grain growth. The effect of grain growth behind the recrystallization front seems to be negligible as compared with the grain coarsening produced by the migration of this front, driven by the cold-work stored energy.




170.    Bocos, J. L., I. Gutierrez, et al. (2004). "Analysis of recrystallization and grain growth in ultra low carbon steels using EBSD." Revista de Metalurgia (Madrid) 40(5): 352-358.

This work is focused on the study of recrystallization texture and microtexture in a cold rolled ultra low carbon steel and its relationship with the global texture. Aspects like nucleation, evolution of the volume fraction and grain size were considered. An important grain selection associated with a significant size and number advantages of the {111} recrystallized grains is observed. This grain selection gives rise to the development, at the latest stages of recrystallization, of a strong γ-fibre associated to good drawing properties.




171.    Bodina, A., J. Sietsmab, et al. (2001). "On the nature of the bimodal grain size distribution after intercritical deformation of a carbon–manganese steel." Materials Characterization 47: 187-193.

Laboratory rolling trials have been performed to investigate the development of microstructure during and after intercritical rolling. The finishing temperature was varied over a wide range, and samples were taken after quenching, following the last pass and after air cooling and coiling, following the last pass. In the study, light optical microscopy, electron microscopy and orientation imaging mapping (OIM) techniques were used to reveal the recrystallization and recovery behavior after finishing in the austenitic–ferritic two-phase region. The large grains that were observed in the bimodal grain size distribution after intercritical rolling are the result of the combination of transformation of deformed austenite into undeformed ferrite (transformation-induced (TI) nucleation of ferrite) and rapid ferrite grain growth into the deformed ferrite grains. The apparent small grains in the bimodal grain size distribution are subgrains and, hence, the result of extensive recovery of deformed ferrite.




172.    Boehlert, C. I. "Sample Preparation."




173.    Boehlert, C. I. "Sample Preparation - Appendix."




174.    Boehlert, C. I. and R. K. Schulze (2001). "Initial Electron Backscattered Diffraction (EBSD) Pattern Observations of a Plutonium-Gallium Alloy."




175.    Boehlert, C. J. and J. Bingert (2000). Microstructure, Tensile, and Creep Behavior of O+BCC Ti2AlNb Alloys Processed Using Induction-Float-Zone Melting. Thermec 2000, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, Elsevier Science Ltd.

The microstructure, tensile, and tensile-creep behavior were studied for two-phase orthorhombic (0) + body-centered cubic (BCC) Ti-22Al-24Nb and Ti-26Al-27Nb(at.%) alloys processed using float-zone melting. Microstructure studies were performed using scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM), automated electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results suggested that upon solidification the BCC phase evolved with [100] oriented nearly parallel to the longitudinal rod direction. During the slow cool through the O+BCC phase field, O variants formed in a fine lath network within the parent BCC. The as-processed rod was strongly textured with an approximately equal distribution of 6 resolvable O variants, some of which extended to greater than 1 mm in length. The retained BCC phase, which was sandwiched between O laths, maintained a higher volume fraction (~0.2) in Ti-22Al-24Nb compared to Ti-26Al-27Nb (Vf~0.05). The tensile and creep behavior of the as-processed microstructure were evaluated with the tensile axis oriented parallel to the longitudinal rod direction. The fully-lath microstructure exhibited room-temperature (RT) strengths and elongations of greater than 850MPa and 4.50%, respectively. Surface slip traces revealed that slip was compatible between the O and BCC laths and one specimen of the higher Al-containing alloy exhibited localized deformation bands. In terms of the creep behavior, the secondary creep rates revealed that the Ti-26Al-27Nb alloy significantly outperformed all other O-based alloys. For applied stresses greater than 300MPa, an activation energy of 346kJ/mol and a creep exponent of 5.1 were measured, while for lower applied stresses the creep exponent transitioned to a value of 2.3. Overall, this work shows that induction float zone processing produces textured fully-lath O+BCC microstructure containing an attractive balance of room- and elevated-temperature properties for Al concentrations as high as 26at.%.




176.    Boehlert, C. J., D. S. Dickmann, et al. (2006). "The Effect of Sheet Processing on the Microsctructure, Tensile, and Creep Behavior of INCONEL Alloy 718." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 37(1): 27-40.

The grain size, grain boundary character distribution (GBCD), creep, and tensile behavior of INCONEL* [*INCONEL is a registered trademark of Special Metals Corp., Huntington, WV.] alloy 718 (IN 718) were characterized to identify processing-microstructure-property relationships. The alloy was sequentially cold rolled (CR) to 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, and 80 pct followed by annealing at temperatures between 954 °C and 1050 °C and the traditional aging schedule used for this alloy. In addition, this alloy can be superplastically formed (IN 718SPF) to a significantly finer grain size and the corresponding microstructure and mechanical behavior were evaluated. The creep behavior was evaluated in the applied stress (σa) range of 300 to 758 MPa and the temperature range of 638 °C to 670 °C. Constant-load tensile creep experiments were used to measure the values of the steady-state creep rate and the consecutive load reduction method was used to determine the values of backstress (σ0). The values for the effective stress exponent and activation energy suggested that the transition between the rate-controlling creep mechanisms was dependent on effective stresses (σe = σa σ0) and the transition occurred at σe 135 MPa. The 10 to 40 pct CR samples exhibited the greatest 650 °C strength, while IN 718SPF exhibited the greatest room-temperature (RT) tensile strength (>1550 MPa) and ductility (εf > 16 pct). After the 954 °C annealing treatment, the 20 pct CR and 30 pct CR microstructures exhibited the most attractive combination of elevated-temperature tensile and creep strength, while the most severely cold-rolled materials exhibited the poorest elevated-temperature properties. After the 1050 °C annealing treatment, the IN 718SPF material exhibited the greatest backstress and best creep resistance. Electron backscattered diffraction was performed to identify the GBCD as a function of CR and annealing. The data indicated that annealing above 1010 °C increased the grain size and resulted in a greater fraction of twin boundaries, which in turn increased the fraction of coincident site lattice boundaries. This result is discussed in light of the potential to grain boundary engineer this alloy.




177.    Boehlert, C. J., J. D. Farr, et al. (2003). "Initial electron back-scattered diffraction observations of cerium." Philosophical Magazine 83(14): 1735-1744.

The first electron back-scattered diffraction Kikuchi patterns and grain orientation maps were captured for pure gamma -phase (fcc) Ce. The sample preparation technique used for electron back-scattered diffraction orientation mapping of this surface-reactive metal included ion sputtering the surface using a scanning Auger microprobe followed by vacuum transfer of the sample from the scanning Auger microprobe to the scanning electron microscope. The effect of ion sputtering on the microstructure as well as preliminary electron back-scattered diffraction microstructural characterization is presented. Based on the sputtering data, the room-temperature diffusivity of 0 in gamma -Ce was estimated.




178.    Boehlert, C. J., R. K. Schulze, et al. (2001). "Initial electron backscattered diffraction observations of a plutonium alloy." Scripta Materialia 45(9): 1107-1115.

In this work, the first electron backscattered diffraction patterns (EBSPs) were captured for a plutonium–gallium (Pu–Ga) alloy. The experimental techniques used for EBSP acquisition are described in detail. This demonstrated sample preparation and characterization technique is expected to be a powerful means to further understand phase transformation behavior, orientation relationships, and texture in the complicated Pu and Pu-alloy systems.




179.    Boehlert, C. J., S. Civelekoglu, et al. (2003). "The effect of cold rolling on the grain boundary character and creep rupture properties of INCONEL alloy 718." Materials Science Forum 426-432(pt.1): 761-766.

In order to evaluate the effects of sheet processing on the grain boundary character distribution (GBCD) of INCONEL(R) alloy 718 (IN 718), electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) mapping was performed on samples cold rolled between 0-40%. Increased cold rolling increased the fraction of low-angle boundaries at the expense of the coincident site lattice boundaries. The tensile-creep rupture life (Tr) and elongation-to-failure (epsilonf) were evaluated at 649 degrees C and 758MPa, and the data indicated that increased cold rolling significantly increased both the Trand epsilonf values. In addition the GBCD and room-temperature (RT) tensile properties were evaluated for superplastically formed INCONEL(R) alloy 718 (IN 718SPF). The tensile results indicated the exceptional strength of the fine-grained IN 718SPF material, however the GBCD parameters were intermediate to those of the 10% and 20% cold rolled IN 718 materials.




180.    Boehlert, C. J., T. G. Zocco, et al. (2003). "Electron backscatter diffraction of a plutonium-gallium alloy." Journal of Nuclear Materials 312(1): 67-75.

An experimental technique has recently been developed to characterize reactive metals, including plutonium (Pu) and cerium, using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Microstructural characterization of Pu and its alloys by EBSD had been previously elusive primarily because of the extreme toxicity and rapid surface oxidation rate associated with Pu metal. The experimental technique, which included ion-sputtering the metal surface using a scanning Auger microprobe (SAM) followed by vacuum transfer of the sample from the SAM to the scanning electron microscope (SEM), used to obtain electron backscatter diffraction Kikuchi patterns and orientation maps for a Pu-gallium alloy is described and the initial microstructural observations based on the analysis are discussed. The phase transformation behavior between the delta (face-centered cubic) and epsilon (body-centered-cubic) structures is explained by combining the SEM and EBSD observations.




181.    Boer, B. d., N. Reger, et al. (1999). Recrystallized cold rolled nickel and nickel-alloys with a strong cube texture. Twelfth International Conference on Textures of Materials (ICOTOM 12), McGill University, Montreal, Canada, NRC Research Press.




182.    Boettinger, W. J., M. D. Vaudin, et al. (2003). "Electron Backscattered Diffraction and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy Study of the Phase NiSn4." Journal of Electronic Materials 32 (No. 6): 511-515.

Electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) have been formed on a plate-shaped phase through the reaction of Sn and Ni. The phase is formed through extensive thermal cycling tests on ceramic capacitators having electroplated tin and terminations. The morphology is is identical to that of a phase labeled NiSn3 by J. Haimovich. The phase is shown to have a stoichiometry, NiSn4, and a crystal structure isomorphous to PdSn4, PtSn4, and AuSn4 (Aba2, #41, oC20). The structure can also be described with the higher symmetry structure (Ccca, #68, oC20).




183.    Boettinger, W. J., S. R. Coriell, et al. (2000).  "Solidification Microstructures: Recent Developments, Future Directions." Acta Materialia 48(1): 43-70.

The status of solidification science is critically evaluated and future directions of research in this technologically important area are proposed. The most important advances in solidification science and technology of the last decade are discussed: interface dynamics, phase selection, microstructure selection, peritectic growth, convection effects, multicomponent alloys, and numerical techniques. It is shown how the advent of new mathematical techniques (especially phase-field and cellular automata models) coupled with powerful computers now allows the following: modeling of complicated interface morphologies, taking into account not only steady state but also non-steady state phenomena; considering real alloys consisting of many elements through on-line use of large thermodynamic data banks; and taking into account natural and forced convection effects. A series of open questions and future prospects are also given. It is hoped that the reader is encouraged to explore this important and highly interesting field and to add her/his contributions to an even better understanding and modeling of microstructure development.




184.    Boffa, V., G. Celentano, et al. (2003). Growth of cube-textured nickel substrates for HTS coated conductors. High Temp. Superconductivity Group Department of Materials University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PH, United Kingdom, Houston, Texas, USA.

The microstructure of Ni-5at%W (Ni-W) and Ni-11at%V (Ni-V) biaxially textured substrates has been investigated using X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD). The correlation between the substrate microstructure and superconducting transport properties of YBa2Cu3O7-y, (YBCO) film grown on it has been studied on the YBCO/CeO2/Ni-W and YBCO/CeO2/NiO/Ni-V architectures. Our study has ascertained that the in-plane texture of the substrates is one of the most important factors, limiting the critical current density. The Ni-V substrate has a lower percolation area due to the larger number of twinned grains and a broader in-plane angular distribution and, as a consequence, the YBa2Cu3O7-y (YBCO) film grown on it has a critical current density of 0.6 x 106 A/cm2, depressed by factor 2 with respect to YBCO grown on the Ni-W substrate. For the Ni-V substrate, another limiting factor is its low oxidation resistance. In contrast to Ni-V, the Ni-W substrate has a larger percolation area, mainly due to the absence of twinned grains, and a high oxidation resistance. 13 Refs.




185.    Bolingbroke, R. K., T. Furu, et al. (1996). "Annealing Behavior of Dilute Aluminum-Alloys Following Hot Deformation." Materials Science and Technology 12(11): 897-903.




186.    Bolmaro, R. E., A. Fourty, et al. (2002). Why Spin Sharing Seems to be Successful in Texture Simulations? ICOTOM 13, Seoul, Korea, Trans Tech Publications Inc.

The current paper presents further developments in the scheme of co-spin used to simulate texture evolution in polycrystalline materials [1]. Statistical parameters are calculated to show the agreement between experimental distribution functions and log-normal distributions. The capabilities of the model to calculate crystal reorientations at the level of a few grains are also checked and the model is further founded on physical grounds.




187.    Bolmaro, R. E., A. Roatta, et al. (1999). Short range misorientation correlation and its evolution influence over texture development. Twelfth International Conference on Textures of Materials (ICOTOM 12), McGill University, Montreal, Canada, NRC Research Press.




188.    Bolyan, H., T. Brough, et al. (2000). Observation of Retained Austenite by Electron Backscatter Diffraction in Austempered Ductile Cast Iron (ADI). Heat Treating: Proceedings of the 20th Conference, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.

This paper describes the application of the electron back scatter diffraction (EBSD) technique to characterise the retained austenite in austempered ductile cast irons. Automated analysis of electron backscatter diffraction patterns can be used to determine maps of the crystal phases and the orientation of the grains in the microstructure. Conventional metallographic techniques cannot reliably identify the prior austenite grains in austempered microstructures. This can be done by EBSD analysis of the retained austenite. EBSD combines the benefits of bulk sample analysis, such as large analysed area, with the benefits normally associated with transmission electron microscopy (high resolution, crystal phase identification and orientation measurement). In parallel with X-ray diffraction, it is a useful tool for retained austenite research. The high beam intensity at small spot size of the field emission gun scanning electron microscope (FEG-SEM) also allows high-resolution observations in fine grain microstructures, such as austempered ductile cast iron. The (110)bcc (111)fcc 11-1bcc //01-1 fcc Kurdjumov-Sachs orientation relationship between ferrite and austenite is demonstrated in the ausferrite matrix in a bulk sample of an austempered ductile cast iron. The use of EBSD to study the interaction between fatigue cracks and the microstructure is also described.




189.    Bonnet, N. (1998). "Multivariate statistical methods for the analysis of microscope image series: applications in materials science." Journal of Microscopy 190(Pts. 1/2): 2-18.




190.    Boogaart, K. G. v. d. (2005). Statistical errors of texture entities based on EBSD orientation measurements. Textures of Materials - ICOTOM 14, Leuven, Belgium, Trans Tech Publications.

The determination of an ODF, C-coefficients, property tensors and portions of texture components from EBSD orientation measurements is afflicted with statistical errors introduced by incomplete sampling of the grains. Since the measurements are highly spatially correlated and stochastically dependent, classical sampling theory does not apply. A general statistical method for error estimation in the presence of stochastically dependent observations has been developed and applied to the most important quantities of texture analysis. The method is based on the assumption of a finite range of dependence between different measurements and on the estimation of the covariance in the observed set of orientation. The methods allows the computation of standard measurement errors and confidence limits for the mentioned texture quantities. It can be used for an objective decision whether two textures are statistically equal or not, based on the comparison of estimated ODFs. Further we can decide statistically whether the ODF obeys certain types of symmetry (e.g. whether it is a girdle textures or whether it is symmetric about the shear plane observed in the field).




191.    Booker, G. R. and R. Stickler (1972). "Scanning electron microscope selected-area channeling patterns: dependence of area on rocking angle and working distance." Journal of Materials Science 7: 712.




192.    Booth, M., V. Randle, et al. (2005). "Time evolution of Σ 3 annealing twins in secondary recrystallized nickel." Journal of Microscopy 217(2): 162-166.

Samples of commercially pure nickel have been annealed in air at 0.68Tm (900°C) for 1, 2 and 3 h in order to study the relationship between the grain growth characteristics and grain boundary misorientation, particularly annealing twins (Σ3). Orientation mapping by electron backscatter diffraction was used to obtain the experimental data. Anomalous grain growth was observed in commercially pure nickel after each of the anneals. The main findings are as follows. The texture was mainly {100} <001> and {112}<111> and it was more pronounced in coarse-grained areas than in fine-grained areas. The length fraction of Σ 3s (annealing twins) increased with annealing time and therefore with the level of anomalous grain growth. Two to three twins per grain were sited in coarse-grained regions whereas less than one twin per grain was sited in fine-grained regions. It is suggested that the nucleation and growth of twinning is mechanistically linked to anomalous grain growth.




193.    Borbély, A., P. J. SzabÓ, et al. (2005). "Orientation correlation in tensile deformed [0 1 1] Cu single crystals." Materials Science and Engineering A 400-401: 132-135.

Local crystallographic orientation of tensile deformed copper single crystals was investigated by the electron backscattering technique. Statistical evaluation of the data reveals the presence of an increased crystallographic correlation at the transition point between stages II and III of work-hardening. The transition state has the lowest probability of finding geometrically necessary dislocations in circular regions of radius smaller than 8µm. According to the present results and other data showing that the relative fluctuation of the dislocation density has a maximum at the transition point, we conclude that the transition from stages II to III of work-hardening is similar to a second-order phase transformation of the statistical dislocation system.




194.    Boscos, J. L., E. Novillo, et al. (2003). Orientation related microstructure evolution during continuous annealing of a cold-rolled low carbon steel. Thermec' 2003, Leganés, Madrid, Spain, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.

The use of OIM allowed to investigate the evolution of the mean grain size of ferrite grains belonging to different texture components during continuous annealing. It has been observed that through a recovery process, a network of boundaries produces mainly inside the deformed g-fibre grains. The recrystallized grains appear within this network. At this stage, different criteria have been applied in order to identify recrystallized grains from the network. The used criterion affects both the measured grain size and the evolution of the number of computed grains, mainly at the first recryatallization stages. It has also been observed that recrystallized grains belonging to certain texture components have a significant size and number advantage all along the process, leading at later stages to a hard impingement between clusters of grains belonging to the g-fibre.




195.    Botcharova, E., J. Freudenberger, et al. (2006). "Novel Cu–Nb-wires: Processing and characterisation." Materials Science and Engineering A 416(1-2): 261-268.

High strength Cu–Nb-conductors were prepared by mechanical alloying and subsequent heat treatment and deformation. The mechanical as well as electrical properties of the material were optimised by varying the Nb-content and also by the adjustment of the heat treatment parameters. Microstructure characterisation was carried out by SEM including EBSD, TEM and X-ray measurements. Optimally treated material shows an ultimate tensile strength of 1210 MPa and an electrical conductivity of about 50% International Annealing Copper Standard (IACS) at room temperature. Grain-boundary sliding as a non-conventional deformation mechanism has been observed to be active in the copper matrix, which is strongly correlated to its nanocrystalline microstructure. This is associated with grain rotation as accommodation process.




196.    Bouche, G., J. L. Béchad, et al. (2000). "Texture of welded joints of 316L stainless steel, multiscale orientation analysis of a weld metal deposit." Journal of Nuclear Materials 277: 91-98.

Weld material of type 316L is widely used in stainless steel X weldments in fast breeder reactors. As it is difficult to/cut test specimens from an X weldment, the two-phase microstructure of 316L welds was simulated by manually filling a mould with longitudinally deposited weld beads. The material consists of γ columnar grains which form a matrix where δ-ferrite dendrites can be found. The crystallographic texture of the material was investigated on the basis of a multiscale approach. Neutron diffraction analysis showed that on a macroscopic scale both phases had predominantly the same fibre texture with some reinforcements, {1 0 0}γ being parallel to {1 0 0}δ. Further analysis on an increasingly fine scale were then carried out by EBSD and by TEM, showing that the ferrite dendrites were nearly parallel to the neighbouring austenite columnar grains




197.    Bounie, P., E. Lenarduzzi, et al. (2003). "Titanium Oxidation During Thermal Treatment: Inhibiting Role of Nitrogen and Epitaxial Orientation Relations Evidenced by EBSD." Advanced Engineering Materials 5(8): 587-593.

The thermooxidation of titanium alloys based on the use of electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD) technique was investigated. The study involved the investigation of the inhibiting role played by nitrogen and epitaxial orientation during the oxidation process. The results concluded that nitrogen played the role of diffusion barrier by occupying the ocatahedral crystal sites. (Edited abstract)




198.    Bouyne, E., H. M. Flower, et al. (1998). "Use Of EBSD Technique To Examine Microstructure and Cracking In a Bainitic Steel." Scripta Materialia 39(3): 295-300.




199.    Bouzy, E., J.-J. Fundenberger, et al. (2003). "Polycrystal orientation maps from TEM." Ultramicroscopy 96(2): 127-137.

Determination of topography of crystallite orientations is an important technique of investigation of polycrystalline materials. A system for creating orientation maps using transmission electron microscope (TEM) Kikuchi patterns and Convergent beam electron diffraction patterns is presented. The orientation maps are obtained using a step-by-step beam scan on a computer-controlled TEM equipped with a CCD camera. At each step, acquired diffraction patterns are indexed and orientations are determined. Although, the approach used is similar to that applied in SEM/electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD) orientation imaging setups, the TEM-based system considerably differs from its SEM counterpart. The main differences appear due to specific features of TEM and SEM diffraction patterns. Also, the resulting maps are not equivalent. On these generated by TEM, the accuracy of orientation determination can be better than 0.1ient tool. The spatial resolution is estimated to be about 10nm. The latter feature makes the TEM orientation mapping system an important tool for studies at fine scale unreachable by SEM/EBSD systems. The automatic orientation mapping is expected to be a useful complement of the conventional TEM contrast images. The new technique will be essential for characterization of fine structure materials. To illustrate that, example maps of an aluminum sample produced by severe plastic deformation are included. Copyright 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.




200.    Bowen, A. W. (1990). "Texture Development in High-Strength Aluminum-Alloys." Materials Science and Technology 6 (11): 1058-1071.




201.    Bowen, A. W. (1994). Practical Considerations in the Calculation of Orientation Distribution Functions from Electron Back-Scattered Diffraction Patterns. Tenth International Conference on Textures of Materials (ICOTOM 10), Clausthal, Germany.




202.    Bowen, J. R. (2005). "Effects of strain on the microstructure-hardness annealing response of highly deformed Al-0.13Mg." Materials Science and Technology 21(12): 1460-1465.

The robustness of a Hall-Petch dislocation based strengthening model and stereological approach to electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) microstructure characterisation developed in a previous investigation, was further explored as a function of annealing in aluminium for strains ranging from 3.5 to 20. At the lowest strain, the microstructure was observed to coarsen by conventional recrystallisation, whereas at the two higher strains, this was not observed as coarsening tended to be more homogeneous. The effect of increasing prestrain was observed to increase the rate of softening during annealing. The model was used to predict the proof stress of these materials approximated from hardness data. The results are then critically discussed in terms of the predicted and approximated 'pseudo' proof stresses and the nature and limitations of the model parameters. Also a new EBSD mapping approach is proposed to enhance EBSD data quality.




203.    Bowen, J. R., O. V. Mishin, et al. (2002). "Orientation correlations in aluminium deformed by ECAE." Scripta Materialia 47(5): 289-294.




204.    Bowen, J. R., P. B. Prangnell, et al. (2000). "Microstructural Evolution of the Deformed State During Severe Deformation of an Ecae Processed Al-0.13-Percent-Mg Alloy." Materials Science Forum 331(P1-3): 545-550.




205.    Bowen, J. R., P. B. Prangnell, et al. (2004). "Microstructural parameters and flow stress in Al–0.13% Mg deformed by ECAE processing." Materials Science and Engineering A 387-389: 235-239.

A high purity Al–0.13 wt.% Mg alloy was deformed to a von Mises strain of 10 and subsequently annealed at temperatures between 100 and 400 °C for 1 h. Boundary spacings were measured in orthogonal directions for all boundaries by EBSD and their corresponding Sv were calculated over both measurement directions. Boundaries with misorientations =15° were used to calculate a standard Hall–Petch strengthening contribution while the boundaries with between 1° and 15° were used to calculate a dislocation strengthening contribution. The combined calculations showed close agreement to actual mechanical test data over more than two orders of magnitude of boundary spacing and significant morphology change. The importance of measuring boundary misorientations for the determination of microstructure–property relationships is concluded.




206.    Bowen, J. R., W. Y. Yeung, et al. (2000). Production of Ultrafine Grained Copper-Zinc Alloy Using Equal Channel Angular Extrusion Technique. Thermec 2000, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) technique was employed to produce ultrafine grained copper-zinc alloys in the present study. An ultrafine grained alloy with grain size of about 0.2 µm was successfully produced. Subsequent heat treatments were then applied to the extruded alloy to assess its structural stability. Results of X-ray diffraction analysis indicated that no significant structural changes occurred in the metal at annealing temperatures below 300°C. Examination of electron microscopy confirmed that a very fine grained structure was retained in the annealed alloy. The ultrafine grained materials generally possessed very high hardness values. Nano-indentation measurements showed that the hardness of the ultrafine grained alloy was about three times of the normal brasses.




207.    Bowles, A., M. Dargusch, et al. (2004). "Grain size measurements in Mg-Al high pressure die castings using electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD)." Materials Transactions 45(11): 3114-3119.

Optical metallographic techniques for grain-size measurement give unreliable results for high pressure diecast Mg-Al alloys and electron back-scattered diffraction mapping (EBSD) provides a good tool for improving the quality of these measurements. An application of EBSD mapping to this question is described, and data for some castings are presented. Ion-beam milling was needed to prepare suitable samples, and this technique is detailed. As is well-known for high pressure die castings, the grain size distribution comprises at least two populations. The mean grain size of the fine-grained population was similar in both AZ91 and AM60 and in two casting thicknesses (2mm and 5mm) and, contrary to previously published reports, it did not vary with depth below the surface.




208.    Bowman, B., D. W. Henderson, et al. (2004). "Mechanical properties of near-eutectic Sn-Ag-Cu alloy over a wide range of temperatures and strain rates." Journal of Electronic Materials 33(12): 1581-1588.

The deformation properties of near-eutectic Sn-Ag-Cu alloy were measured in temperatures ranging from -25 to 125C.; Puttli C, and down to strain rates of about 10 x 10-9. Results have been combined into a stress versus strain rate master curve. The measurements were done with dog-bone specimens that have a 1-mm diameter, which corresponds to a typical solder joint diameter in ball grid arrays (EGAs). Effects of cooling rate were also studied, with cooling rates from 0.1 to 1 degrees/sec. The stress exponent of the fast-cooled samples was high, about 16. The activation energy was about 1 eV. The relatively high temperature dependence suggests that bulk diffusion is dominating. Optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD) were used to study the microstructures of the test samples. The slower cooled samples had large Ag3Sn plates, but the size of the plates was significantly reduced with the faster cooling rates. The yield strength increased with cooling rate, reflecting the larger amount of alloying elements remaining in the solution and smaller, dispersed precipitates. For comparison, experiments were also performed on binary AgSn and CuSn solders, pure Sn, and with two reduced silver content SAC alloys, Sn-2.5% Ag-0.7% Cu and Sn-3.0%Ag-0.7%Cu.




209.    Boxel, S. V., M. Seefeldt, et al. (2005). Experimental study on the influence of grain boundaries on the subdivision behaviour of Al-3%Mg polycrystals during cold deformation using electron backscatter diffraction. Textures of Materials - ICOTOM 14, Leuven, Belgium, Trans Tech Publications.

The substructure of a single grain in an electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) data map is studied, focusing on the influence of the grain boundary configuration on the misorientation to the average grain orientation of data points close to the grain boundary. For most grain boundary segments a certain degree of linking between the misorientations to the average orientation of the grain exists and large deviations from the average orientation of the grain are observed close to the triple junctions of the boundary segments. Changes of the misorientation over one boundary segment are analysed and possible explanations for these variations are discussed. It is suggested that the variations of the misorientation over the boundary segment can be attributed to the requirements of stress equilibrium and strain compatibility. Also the tendency of the grain boundary to lower its surface energy might have a significant influence on the misorientation profile and therefore on the subdivision behaviour of the grains.




210.    Boyes, E. D. (1993). "New-Generation Sent Integrating 0.5 nm Image-Resolution and Submicron Low-Voltage EDX Chemical Microanalysis." Institute of Physics Conference Series(138): 495-498.




211.    Boyko, V. S. and I. N. Sidorenko (1989). "Lattice Dislocation Interaction with Larg-Angle Grain-Boundary." Fizika Metallov I Metallovedenie 67(3): 444-450.




212.    Boyle, A. P., D. J. Prior, et al. (1998). "Plastic-Deformation of Metamorphic Pyrite - New Evidence from Electron-Backscatter Diffraction and Forescatter Orientation-Contrast Imaging." Mineralium Deposita 34(1): 71-81.




213.    Bozzolo, N., F. Wagner, et al. (2002). Recrystallization Textures in some Hexagonal Alloys. ICOTOM 13, Seoul, Korea, Trans Tech Publications Inc.

The sequence of the mechanisms responsible for the development of the recrystallization texture is stated for titanium on the basis of microstructural and textural data recorded at different stages of primary recrystallization and grain growth. The major texture change (i.e. the well-known 30° rotation around c-axes) results from the grain growth stage, while primary recrystallization induces only slight modifications, due to a significant activity of in-situ recrystallization. An important point to be noticed is the particular behavior of the orientations characterized by twinning activity during the prior deformation, which disappear in the very first stage of primary recrystallization, with nevertheless a quite limited incidence on the global texture of titanium due to the low volume fraction concerned. Beyond the specifications of each material, similarities can be found between titanium and other hexagonal metals or alloys like zirconium and zinc, concerning the particular behavior of twinning related orientations for example, but also concerning the global texture change occurring mainly as a result of grain growth.




214.    Bozzolo, N., N. Dewobroto, et al. (2004). Grain Growth Texture Evolution in Zirconium (Zr702) and Commercially Pure Titanium (T40). Second Joint International Conference on Recrystallization and Grain Growth, ReX & GG2, SF2M, Annecy, France, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.

The evolutions of microstructure and crystallographic texture in low-alloyed titanium sheets are investigated by electron backscattering diffraction at different grain growth stages. Recrystallization of 80% cold-rolled sheets and subsequent grain growth lead to equiaxed microstructures. The texture obtained at the end of primary recrystallization is very close to that of the cold-rolled state, with the maximum value of the orientation distribution function at {0°, 35°, 0°}. The orientations developing during grain growth correspond to a broad peak centered around {0°, 35°, 30°} which is a minor component in the initial texture. The disappearing orientations are widely scattered throughout orientation space and present two major disadvantages in the growth competition: (i) they are highly misoriented with respect to the growing texture component and (ii) the grains having these orientations belong to the smallest size range in the microstructure obtained at the end of the primary recrystallization. The grain boundaries remaining after extended grain growth are characterized by an increasing proportion of misorientations below 30° and random rotation axes.




215.    Bozzolo, N., N. Dewobroto, et al. (2005). "Texture evolution during grain growth in recrystallized commercially pure titanium." Materials Science and Engineering A 397(1-2): 346-355.

The evolutions of microstructure and crystallographic texture in low-alloyed titanium sheets are investigated by electron backscattering diffraction at different grain growth stages. Recrystallization of 80% cold-rolled sheets and subsequent grain growth lead to equiaxed microstructures. The texture obtained at the end of primary recrystallization is very close to that of the cold-rolled state, with the maximum value of the orientation distribution function at {0DG, 35DG, 0DG}. The orientations developing during grain growth correspond to a broad peak centered around {0DG, 35DG, 30DG} which is a minor component in the initial texture. The disappearing orientations are widely scattered throughout orientation space and present two major disadvantages in the growth competition: (i) they are highly misoriented with respect to the growing texture component and (ii) the grains having these orientations belong to the smallest size range in the microstructure obtained at the end of the primary recrystallization. The grain boundaries remaining after extended grain growth are characterized by an increasing proportion of misorientations below 30DG and random rotation axes.




216.    Bradai, D., P. Zieba, et al. (2002). "Correlation between grain boundary misorientation and the discontinuous precipitation reaction in Mg–10 wt.% Al alloy." Materials Chemistry and Physics 78: 222-226.

The correlation between the geometry of the grain boundaries (GBs) and the kinetics of the discontinuous precipitation (DP) reaction in a Mg–10 wt.% Al alloy has been studied. The GBs were categorized as special or random by using the electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) technique and theoretical tables of the coincidence site lattice. The analysis showed convincingly the absence of low-angle GBs and no distinguished maximum on the GB misorientation angle distribution in this hexagonal system. The DP cells appeared predominantly at nonspecial (random) orientations, confirming that the initiation and growth of the reaction products occur at high-angle GBs. Generally, some orientations which are inactive after 20 min became active after 40 min of ageing at 500 K. For each rotation axis, there were several misorientation angles (no special ones) for which a maximum growth distance of DP reaction was observed.




217.    Bradley, S. A., C. W. Allen, et al. (1997). "Proceedings of the 1996 6th Conference on Frontiers in Electron Microscopy in Materials Science." Ultramicroscopy 67: 238.

The proceeding contains 20 papers on ultramicroscopy. Topics discussed include: orientation imaging microscopy; scanning electron microscopy; transmission electron microscopy; electron backscattered diffraction; electron energy loss spectroscopy; energy-filtered transmission electron microscopes; Lorentz microscopy; electron holography; and environmental high resolution electron microscopy.




218.    Brahme, A., R. Campman, et al. (2004). 3D digital microstructures for prognosis modeling. Materials Damage Prognosis - a Symposium of the Materials Science and Technology 2004 Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.

An essential element of connecting microstructure to damage accumulation via simulation is to be able to construct sufficiently accurate descriptions of a material in all three dimensions. The Microstructure Builder provides a set of tools for accomplishing this 1. Automated electron back-scatter diffraction based on scanning electron microscopy is used to characterize at least two different mutually perpendicular cross-sections. The resulting orientation and misorientation distribution information, together with size and aspect ratio distributions are used to generate the microstructures. The grain geometry is discretized with a Voronoi tessellation which can be subsequently converted to a finite element mesh. Groups of cells are aggregated to form grains and orientations are assigned using a simulated annealing procedure to match the experimentally measured distributions. This description of a single-phase material has been extended in this work to describe aerospace aluminum alloys that are essentially single phase but contain coarse inclusions. The dispersion of second phase particles is fit using anisotropic pair correlation functions. The microstructures thus generated will be used to study the effect of features such as second phase particles and triple junctions on fatigue crack initiation.




219.    Bramley, A. P., A. J. Wilkinson, et al. (1998). "Microstructural studies of Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3Ox thin films on LaAlO3 and MgO substrates." Journal of Superconductivity 11(1): 71-72.

Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3Oxthin films have been fabricated on (001) LaAlO3 and (001) MgO substrates. Films grown on LaAlO3 have Tc=112K and Rs(80K, 10GHz)=0.2m Ohm, while films on MgO have Tc=117K and Rs(80K; 10GHz)=0.7m Ohm. The grain size and alignment of the Alms has been investigated using X-ray diffraction, Scanning Electron Microscopy and Electron Backscattered Diffraction. We show evidence for a markedly higher in-plane angular spread for films on MgO and believe that for films grown on this substrate the lowest achievable values of Rs are limited by disorder in the in-plane alignment of the TBCCO film caused by the large lattice mismatch between the materials.




220.    Brechet, Y., L. Maniguet, et al. (2003). "Recrystallization and Texture in a Ferritic Stainless Steel: An EBSD Study." Advanced Engineering Materials 5(8): 570-574.

The recrystallization behavior of a ferritic stainless steel sheet was studied using electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD). It was shown that a strongly banded microstructure developed with alternating grains belongs to the α-fiber and γ-fiber textures. The boundaries separating subgrains within the grains interacted with fine Ti(C,N) precipitates that formed during the final stages of hot rolling. (Edited abstract)




221.    Bretheau, T., J. Crepin, et al. (2001). "Materials Mechanics Inside The Scanning Electron Microscope." Revista Latinoamericana de Metalurgia y Materiales 21(2): 21-26.

In order to observe the phenomena occurring during deformation, mechanical test stages working inside a scanning electron microscope (SEM) chamber have been developed; they allow performing tests step by step, without unloading, with a fixed tensile axis, and making observations in a large range of magnification. Two stages are available: a tensile stage with a load cell in the range 0-500 daN and a micro furnace to heat the specimen up to 800 deg C, a biaxial tension/torsion out-of-phase fatigue stage with a tension compression load up to plus/minus1000 daN and a torque up to plus/minus50 Nm. This system is completed by an image analyzer used to quantify microstructure morphologies and by an electron backscattering diffraction device (EBSD) that allows determining the local crystalline orientation and following its evolution under deformation. A fiducial grid technique have been developed to measure some components of the local strain tensor. The microgrids are deposited on the surface sample by an electrolithographic technique; their pitch ranges from 1 to 15 mu m or more; they provide a good contrast for SEM and the underlying microstructure remains visible. From a qualitative point of view, a grid gives informations on the mechanisms occuring at the local scale during deformation. Their quantitative use gives average strain values per phase and strain distribution functions. Strain maps can also be obtained through the use of image analysis techniques. Materials include Cu; Al/SiCp; an alumina inclusion in a Ni-base superalloy; Zn; and Fe/Ag.




222.    Brewer, L. N. and B. P. Bewlay (2002). EBSD Characterization of Texture in Tungsten-Rhenium Foils. Microscopy and Microanalysis 2002, Québec City, Québec, Canada, Cambridge University Press.




223.    Brewer, L. N., M. A. Othon, et al. (2002). Misorientation Mapping for Visualization of Plastic Strain via Electron Back-Scattered Diffraction. Microscopy and Microanalysis 2002. E. Voelkel, D. Piston, R. Gauvinet al. Québec City, Québec, Canada, Cambridge University Press. 8: 684CD-685CD.




224.    Brewer, L. N., V. P. Dravid, et al. (2002). "Solid solution directionally solidified eutectic oxide composites: Part II. Co1-x/Nix O single-crystal growth and characterization." Journal of Materials Research 17(4): 768-773.

The growth and structure of the Co1-x/Nix O series of single crystals with 0 being less than or equal to x which is less than or equal to 1, were investigated with the goal of achieving a single-phase crystal over several centimeters of bulk growth. The single crystals were grown via the floating zone method controlling the partial pressure of oxygen to prevent secondary phase precipitation. The resulting crystals were single-phase for all compositions. CoO was a single-domain crystal but contained microvoids. The lattice parameters followed a rule-of-mixtures trend, but the coefficient of thermal expansion exhibited a maximum in the middle of the solid solution, which was attributed to ehanced vacancy formation.




225.    Briant, C. L. (2001). Grain Boundary and Microstructure Design of Steel. Materials Design Approaches and Experiences. J.-C. Zhao, M. Fahrmann and T. M. Pollock. Warrendale, PA, TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society): 137-149.




226.    Briant, C. L., G. Unsal, et al. (1996). "Grain Growth in Tungsten Rod." Interface Science 4: 81-97.

This paper reports a study of recrystallization and grain growth in tungsten rod. Samples were deformed at elevated temperatures in compression and then annealed. The microstructure was examined by optical metallography, scanning electron microscopy, and electron backscattering diffraction patterns (EBSP) in the scanning electron microscope. The results showed that when the samples were deformed at a high crosshead speed at 1200, 1400, and 1600°C, the microstructure consisted of grains that had developed a high aspect ratio in the regions of the sample that had received the most deformation. When these samples were annealed, a more equiaxed structure was produced. Samples deformed at 1800°C developed very fine recrystallized grains during the mechanical testing. These remained during the anneal. When the crosshead speed was reduced, these fine grains could be observed even after testing at 1200°C. EBSP revealed little, if any, crystallographic texture in the recrystallized grain structure. These results are compared with previous work on tungsten rod to develop a more complete description of this process.




227.    Bridier, F., P. Villechaise, et al. (2005). "Analysis of the different slip systems activated by tension in a α/ βtitanium alloy in relation with local crystallographic orientation." Acta Materialia 53: 555-567.

The gliding modes of a duplex Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy were investigated through in situ (scanning electron microscopy) tensile tests. A method based on electron back-scattering diffraction (EBSD) measurements was used to identify activated slip systems. The approach applied to a large number of grains allowed a statistical analysis of the nature (basal, prismatic, pyramidal) and distribution of the slip systems according to the crystallographic texture. A discussion concerning the pertinence of Schmid s law to explain the occurrence and succession of slip events is then proposed. The domain in favor of each type of slip system is finally presented by using inverse pole figures mapped with Schmid's factor iso-curves.




228.    Brien, V., V. Khare, et al. (2004). "Influence of boron content on the microstructure of sintered Al(62.5-x)Cu(25.3)Fe(12.2)B(x) alloys (x = 0, 3, 5)." Journal of Materials Research 19(10): 2974-2980.

Microstructures and morphological features of a series of sintered quasicrystalline Al(62.5-x)Cu(25.3)Fe(12.2)B(x) alloys, with x ranging from 0 to 5 at.% were studied using x-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, x-ray mapping, and electron probe microanalysis. Electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD) was also used to get information about the structures of some phases and identify the crystalline relationship in-between phases. Increasing x results in the change of the nature of extra phases. These secondary phases are all less than 1% in volume of the total matter except for the (3 phase at 5% of boron. Whatever the percentage of boron considered, boron seems to concentrate essentially in the parasite phases confirming doubts found in literature about the solubility of boron inside the face-centered-icosahedral Al-Cu-Fe phase. No special crystallographic relationship in between the tested phases could be spotted. EBSD is thus also confirmed as an excellent technique to get quasicrystalline grains orientations.




229.    Brochu, M., T. Yokata, et al. (1997). "Analysis of Grain Colonies in Type 430 Ferritic Stainless Steel by Electron Back Scattering Diffraction (EBSD)." ISIJ International 37(9): 872-877.




230.    Brokmeier, H.-G., B. Buchmayr, et al. (2004). "Evolution of texture in Alloy 80A during initial ingot breakdown." Zeitschrift fur Metallkunde 95(7): 639-643.

This paper presents details on the evolution of texture in Alloy 80A during the initial ingot break-down process by means of repeated hot-working (cogging). The ingot was produced by vacuum arc re-melting showing equiaxed and columnar grains. Compression tests were performed with a Gleeble system covering the range of temperatures, strains, and strain rates experienced during processing on an industrial scale. Texture analysis (neutron and electron back-scatter diffraction) was applied to all specimens before and after hot deformation to reflect the thermo-mechanical history. The ingot exhibited a well pronounced <100>-fiber texture of the initial microstructure. Low deformation ratios did not change the type of texture, but the degree of the preferred orientation. High strains partially result in the de-struction of the fiber texture and lead to the appearance of additional texture components, such as cube- and Goss-components. With continued deformation, recovery and recrystallization become predominant.




231.    Brooks, J. A., C. V. Robino, et al. (2003). "Weld Solidification and Cracking Behavior of Free-Machining Stainless Steel." Welding Journal 82(3): 51S-61S.

The weld solidification and cracking behavior of sulfur-bearing, free-machining austenitic stainless steel was investigated for both gas tungsten are (GTA) and pulsed laser beam welding processes. The GTA weld solidification was consistent with that predicted with existing solidification diagrams, and the cracking response was controlled primarily by the solidification mode. The solidification behavior of the pulsed laser welds was complex and often contained regions of primary ferrite and primary austenite solidification, although in all cases the welds were found to be completely austenite at room temperature. Electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) pattern analysis indicated the nature of the base metal at the time of solidification plays a primary role in initial solidification. The solid-state transformation of austenite to ferrite at the fusion zone boundary and ferrite to austenite on cooling may both be massive in nature. A range of alloy compositions that exhibited good resistance to solidification cracking and was compatible with both welding processes was identified. The compositional range is bounded by laser weldability at lower Creq /Nieq ratios and by the GTA weldability at higher ratios. It was found with both processes that the limiting ratios were somewhat dependent upon sulfur content.




232.    Brosnan, K. H., G. L. Messing, et al. (2006). "Texture measurements in (001) fiber-oriented PMN-PT." Journal of the American Ceramic Society 89(6): 1965-1971.

Textured (1-x)(Mg13Nb23)O3-xPbTiO3 (PMN-PT) ceramics obtained by the templated grain growth process possess a significant fraction of the piezoelectric properties of Bridgman-grown single crystals at a fraction of the cost. However, for integration of these materials into transducer and actuator designs, a more comprehensive characterization of texture quality than possible with Lotgering analysis is needed. In this study, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and electron backscatter diffraction techniques were used to characterize the fiber texture in (001)-oriented PMN-28PT. The March-Dollase equation was fitted to the intensity data to describe the texture in terms of the texture fraction, f, and the degree of texture of the oriented fraction using the March parameter, r. Although each of the techniques used was quantitatively in agreement, XRD rocking curve collection and analysis was the most time-efficient technique for making a comprehensive measurement of texture (f=0.69, r=0.29, FWHM=13.9d the sca) for fiber-oriented PMN-28PT.




233.    Brun, O., T. Chauveau, et al. (1991). "Influence of Temperature on Hot-Rolling Textures of Aluminum-Alloys in Absence of Recrystallization." Materials Science and Technology 7(2): 167-175.




234.    Buccheit, T. E., D. A. LaVan, et al. (2002). "Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Investigation of Electrodeposited and Annealed LIGA Nickel Structures." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 33A(3): 539-554.

Lithographic, Galvanoformung, Abformung (LIGA) component fabrication is a process in which structural material is deposited into a patterned polymethyl-methacrylate (PMMA) mold realized through deep X-ray lithography. The process permits fabrication of metal microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) components with representative dimensions that range from a few microns to several millimeters. This investigation characterizes the microstructure and mechanical properties of LIGA-fabricated Nickel (LIGA Ni), electrodeposited using Watts bath and sulfamate bath chemistries. As a prelude to studying high-temperature joining processes in LIGA Ni components, an annealing investigation was conducted on samples fabricated from both bath chemistries. Mechanical properties and microstructural analyses on as-deposited and annealed samples were conducted using a mini servohydraulic load frame and the electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) microtexture measurement technique. The deposits were found to have fine-grain, highly tectured microstructures oriented with an acicular or columnar morphology relative to the plating direction. Previously uncharacterized, anomalous, local spatial variations in the crystallographic texture of the as-deposited microstructures were identified by EBSD analysis. Microstructural evolution during annealing seemed to follow a recovery, recrystallization, rapid grain-growth microstructural-evolution mechanism in LIGA Ni deposited from the sulfamate bath chemistry and simply a recovery and grain-growth microstructural-evolution mechanism in LIGA Ni deposited from the Watts bath chemistry. The evolution of microstructure in the annealed samples corresponded with a dramatic drop in their strength and determined the limiting diffusion-bonding temperatue for LIGA Ni components.




235.    Buchheit, T. E., G. W. Wellman, et al. (2005). "Investigating the limits of polycrystal plasticity modeling." International Journal of Plasticity 21(2): 221-249.

A material model which describes the rate-dependent crystallographic slip of FCC metals has been implemented into a quasistatic, large deformation, nonlinear finite element code developed at Sandia National Laboratories. The resultant microstructure based elastic–plastic deformation model has successfully performed simulations of realistic looking 3-D polycrystalline microstructures generated using a Potts-model approach. These simulations have been as large as 50,000 elements composed of 200 randomly oriented grains. This type of model tracks grain orientation and predicts the evolution of sub-grains on an element by element basis during deformation of a polycrystal. Simulations using this model generate a large body of informative results, but they have shortcomings. This paper attempts to examine detailed results provided by large scale highly resolved polycrystal plasticity modeling through a series of analyses. The analyses are designed to isolate issues such as rate of texture evolution, the effect of mesh refinement and comparison with experimental data. Specific model limitations can be identified with lack of a characteristic length scale and oversimplified grain boundaries within the modeling framework.




236.    Buerke, A., H. Wendrock, et al. (2000). "Study of Electromigration Damage in Al Interconnect Lines inside a SEM." Crystal Research and Technology 35(6-7): 721-730.

The mechanisms of electromigration, i.e. mass transport induced by high electric current, were studied in thin AlSi1Cu0.5 interconnects using in situ experiments in a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The influence of grain boundaries as important paths of diffusion could be shown because the initial grain structure was recorded in detail by an orientation mapping with high lateral resolution over the whole interconnect. That was done by the Electron Back Scatter Diffraction technique in the SEM. The role of grain boundaries with high misorientation angles and of large blocking grains was investigated in detail by comparison of the localised damages with the corresponding part of orientation map. The formation of fatal voids was found to take place at the end of a large blocking grain followed by a high angle grain boundary directed parallel to the current flow. Hillocks were seen to be formed at such grain boundary triple junctions where a high flux divergence occurs due to different misorientation angles of the joined grain boundaries, and due to their direction with respect to the current flow. Additionally an increased content of the alloying element Cu was found in some of the hillocks.




237.    Buffiere, J.-Y., S. Fouvry, et al. (2005). "A fretting crack initiation prediction taking into account the surface roughness and the crack nucleation process volume." International Journal of Fatigue 27(5): 569-579.

This paper presents an experimental study of the fretting crack nucleation threshold, expressed in terms of loading conditions, with a cylinder/plane contact. The studied material is a damage tolerant aluminium alloy widely used in the aerospace application. Since in industrial problems, the surface quality is often variable, the impact of a unidirectional roughness is investigated via varying the roughness of the counter body in the fretting experiments. As expected, experimental results show a large effect of the contact roughness on the crack nucleation conditions. Rationalisation of the crack nucleation boundary independently of the studied roughnesses was successfully obtained by introducing the concept of effective contact area. This does show that the fretting crack nucleation of the studied material can be efficiently described by the local effective loadings inside the contact. Analytical prediction of the crack nucleation is presented with the Smith-Watson-Topper (SWT) parameter and size effect is also studied and discussed. Copyright 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.




238.    Buffiere, J.-Y., S. Savelli, et al. (2001). "Experimental study of porosity and its relation to fatigue mechanisms of model Al-Si7-Mg0.3 cast Al alloys." Materials Science and Engineering A316(1-2): 115-126.

The microstructure and fatigue properties of three model AS7G03 cast aluminium alloys containing artificial pores have been studied. Synchrotron X-ray tomography has been used to characterise in three dimensions the pore population in the alloys. The development of fatigue cracks in relation with local crystallography has been studied by means of electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD). Both the average number of cycles to failure and the lifetime scatter depend on the pore content specially at high stress level. The mechanism leading to the initiation of a crack from a pore has been identified. The crack propagation at high stress level appears to be quite insensitive to microstructural barriers and can be reasonably well described by a Paris type law. At low stresses, however, short cracks are often observed to be stopped at grain boundaries and the fatigue life is no longer predicted by a simple propagation law. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.




239.    Bugat, S., J. Besson, et al. (1999). "Microstructure and damage initiation in duplex stainless steels." Materials Science and Engineering A 317: 32-36.

The damage nucleation of a duplex stainless steel is investigated. Electron Back Scatter Diffraction (EBSD) technique is used to correlate local phase morphology with crystallographic properties. In situ tensile tests are performed to characterize strain fields and to monitor sites of damage nucleation. These observations are correlated with crystallographic orientations and finite element calculations.




240.    Buque, C. and F. Appel (2003). Microstructural aspects of diffusion bonding of high niobium containing gamma TiAl-based alloys. Gamma Titanium Aluminides 2003 Symposium, San Diego, California, USA, TMS.

This paper describes the grain structure, phase morphology, crystallographic texture, and elemental distribution in the interdiffusion zone of diffusion bonded couples of a binary titanium aluminide alloy of composition Ti-45Al (at.%). The results are compared with those obtained on Ti-45Al-10Nb (at.%) representing a new generation of TiAl alloys with enhanced high-temperature capability. The studies have been performed on a scanning electron microscope utilizing electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) and energy dispersive X-Ray analysis (EDX). The micromechanisms responsible for the microstructural changes occurring in the bonding zone will be discussed with regard to the phase transformations and diffusion processes involved.




241.    Buque, C., J. Bretschneider, et al. (2001). "Dislocation structures in cyclically deformed nickel polycrystals." Materials Science and Engineering A 300: 254-262.

The effect of the grain orientation and the plastic strain amplitude εpa on the saturated dislocation structure was studied on individual grains of cyclically deformed nickel polycrystals by means of scanning electron microscopy using the electron back scattering pattern technique and the channelling contrast of back scattered electrons. The main features of the dislocation configuration in a grain were found to be essentially determined by the crystallographic axial orientation of the grain. A labyrinth-like dislocation pattern is typical for grains with axial orientations near [001], a patch pattern exists in grains with a loading axis (LA) near [011] and fragmented dislocation walls are dominant in grains with LA near [1(11]. Grains with axial orientations in the central part of the stereographic standard triangle contain a bundle arrangement of dislocation structures. All four types of dislocation structures, but mostly the bundle type, can occur together with the ladder structure of persistent slip bands. Cell patterns were found to be a result of a modification of the bundle and patch configuration at high deformation amplitudes. The mesoscopic dimensions of the dislocation patterns turned out to depend on opa in the same way for all grain orientations: while the thickness of regions with high dislocation density is reduced with increasing opa, the width of regions with low dislocation density remains roughly constant.




242.    Burgardt, B., G. Cailletaud, et al. (2003). "Strain localization at the crack tip in single crystal CT specimens under monotonous loading: 3D Finite Element analyses and application to nickel-base superalloys." International Journal of Fracture 124(1-2): 43-77.

Three-dimensional Finite Element simulations of mode I crack tip fields in Compact Tension specimens are presented for elastic ideally-plastic F.C.C. single crystals. The computations are carried out within the framework of classical continuum crystal plasticity for three crack orientations: (001) 110, (110) 001 and (001) 100. The attention is drawn on the strong differences between the plastic strain field obtained at the free surface and in the mid-section of the specimens. The results are compared, on the one hand, to analytical solutions for stationary cracks in single crystals under plane strain conditions and, on the other hand, to experimental tests on a single crystal nickel-based superalloy at room temperature. For this material, both octahedral and cube slip must be taken into account. A good agreement between experimental observations and numerical results is found in the structure of the strain localization bands observed at the free surface of (110) 001 cracked specimens. In particular, the evidence of kink banding near the crack tip is provided, confirmed by EBSD orientation mapping. The measured values of local lattice rotation are in agreement with the Finite Element prediction.




243.    Burhan, N., M. Ferry, et al. (2004). Grain growth inhibition in a nanocrystalline AI-Sc alloy. Ultrafine Grained Materials III (as held at the 2003 TMS Annual Meeting), Charlotte, North Carolina, USA.

An ultrafine-grained microstructure in an Al-0.2 wt.% Sc alloy was produced by high strain deformation using Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP). The alloy was solution treated prior to deformation, deformed by ECAP then aged at low temperature to produce a sub-micron grained microstructure with a high fraction of high angle grain boundaries (HAGB) decorated with nanosized Al3Sc particles. General grain stability and particle/grain boundary interactions were studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The fine-grained microstructure was found to be highly stable during annealing at 450all defor C due to Zener pinning from stable Al3Sc particles. The volume fraction and size of fine particles and their rate of coarsening were found to have a strong influence on grain growth. The grain stability in this alloy system was compared with a recent model of grain coarsening in particle-containing materials.




244.    Burke, D. P. and R. L. Higginson (2000). "Characterization of multicomponent scales by electron back scattered diffraction." Scripta Materialia 42(No. 3): 277-81.




245.    Burlini, L. and K. Kunze (2000). "Fabric and Seismic Properties of Carrara Marble Mylonite." Phys. Chem. Earth (A) 25(2): 133-139.

Shear deformation in calcite-rich rocks can produce strong lattice preffered orientations (LPO), which esult in a high anisotropy of bulk seismic properties because of the high elastic anisotropy of calcite (32% Vp anisotropy). Deformed rocks often show also strong shape preferred orientations (SPO). Theories for averaging the elastic properties have not yet satisfactorily predicted the contribution to the seismic anisotropy caused by the SPO alone. A calcite mylonite from Carrara, Italy was invesitigated, which is characterised by a strong SPO and a weak LPO It was composed of about 80% calcite, then white mica, quartz and hematite. Flattening of mica and calcite grains defined the mylonitic foliation, and elongation of calcite grains defined the lineation. On average calcite grains have aspect ratios of about 2.5:1.6:1, and grain sizes of about 10 µm. At 400 MPa confining pressure, the measured Vp (km/s) parallel to the lineation (X direction) was highest (6.63), lower in the intermediate Y direction (6.47). the Vp normal to the foliation (Z direction) was lowest (6.30). This yielded a Vp anisotropy of 5%. The LPO, determined by automated electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD), was very weak (texture index 1.1), with intensities between 0.6 and 1.6 m.r.d. in the c-axis pole figure. Extrapolation of the texture index to an infinite number of orientation measurements indicated that the observed variations were mostly random noise in the orientation distributions and that the bulk rock texture was random. The Vp anisotropy of the Voight, Reuss and Hill averages calculated from this calcite LPO is predicted to be close to zero. Adding 5% of muscovite with (001) perfectly alligned parallel to the foliation, we calculated a total anisotropy of 2.8%. The anisotropy calculated for the special directions of X, Y, and Z remained at 2.6% only. It was concluded that the measured seismic anisotropy cannot be explained by the LPO of calcite and by 5% of mica alone. It is also attributed to the strong SPO and to further grain boundary effects.




246.    Burton, N. C., J. E. Butler, et al. (1995). "On a Characteristic Misorientation Structure Within (001) Facets of CVD-Grown Diamond Crystallites - An Analysis by Optical Microtopography, Interferometry, Electron-Diffraction and Cathodoluminescence." Proceedings of The Royal Society of London Series A 449(1937): 555-566.




247.    Busche, M. J. (2000). K, the fourth order coefficient tensor used in ALE3D&apos;s quadratic generalized von mises yield function, in five easy steps.

This document describes the software developed for use in calculating K, the 4th order parameter tensor used in ALE3D&apos;s anisotropic plasticity model. The multi-scale modeling method developed for this calculation begins with orientation imaging microscopy (OIM) data. The program OIMA3D characterizes the sizes and crystal orientation of the grains found in this data and then determines element orientations for a representative 3D mesh. A shell script, MAKEJOBS, then creates the necessary files to run six ALE3D simulations using this mesh. The results of these simulations are then read by SVD{, }K, a Matlab script, and K is calculated from this information.




248.    Busso, E. P. and M. Yaguchi (2005). "On the accuracy of self-consistent elasticity formulations for directionally solidified polycrystal aggregates." International Journal of Solids and Structures 42(3-4): 1073-1089.

In this work, the elastic properties of directionally solidified (DS) polycrystal aggregates are investigated through a combination of analytical and numerical approaches. The effects of crystallographic misorientations and grain aspect ratios of aggregates with ellipsoidal shaped grains are first examined following a self-consistent approach. Finite element techniques are then used to examine the effects of grain size on the elastic properties of the aggregate and to assess the accuracy of the self-consistent predictions. To that purpose, a finite element procedure is presented to generate numerically realistic 3D DS microstructures from electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD) lattice orientation measurements on an arbitrary cross-section of a DS material. The elastic stiffnesses predicted numerically and analytically are then compared with experimental data on a Ni-base DS alloy tested uniaxially along arbitrary orientations. The general trend predicted analytically was found to be consistent with the numerical and experimental results. Furthermore, an increase in the misorientation between the 0 0 1 axis of each DS grain with respect to the grain growth direction was found to decrease the elastic anisotropy of the DS material. Copyright 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.




249.    Bystricky, M., K. Kunze, et al. (2000). "High Shear Strain of Olivine Aggregates: Rheological and Seismic Consequences." Science 290: 1564-1567.

High pressure and temperature torsion experiments of olivine aggregates in dislocation creep show about 15 - 20% strain weakening before steady-state behavior, characterized by sub-grain rotation tecrystallization and a stron lattice prefererred orientation. Such weakening may provide a way to focus flow in the upper mantle without a change in deformation mechanism. Flow laws derived from low strain data may not be appropriate for use in modeling high strain regions. In such areas, seismic wave propogation will be anisotropic with an axis of approximate rotational symmetry about the shear direction. In contrast to current thinking, the anisotropy will not indicate the orientation of the shear plane in highly strained, recrystallized olivine-rich rocks.




250.    Bystrzycki, J. and R. A. Varin (1998). "Microstructure and microtexture in powder-extruded monolithic NiAl and NiAl-HfC alloy." Intermetallics 6: 277-289.




251.    Bystrzycki, J., R. A. Varin, et al. (2000). "Grain boundary character distribution in B2 intermetallics." Intermetallics 8: 1049-1059.

This paper reports the results of the experimental studies of the effect of chemical composition, texture and processing methods on the grain boundary character distribution evaluated by the electron backscatter diffraction pattern (EBSD or EBSP) technique in B2 FeAl and NiAl intermetallic compounds. An alternative method based on the grain boundary surface area for calculating the unbiased fraction of grain boundaries of a given character (ΣCSL) is proposed. It is shown that the proposed method gives different results than the classical method based on the counting of grain boundary segments. It is found for both FeAl and NiAl that the fraction of low-angle boundaries (Σ1 LABs) increases with increasing percentage of the <100> and to a lesser extent the <111> texture up to the limit of ~20%. In B2 FeAl the fraction of so-called "special" grain boundaries (SGBs) (Σ3-29) seems to be independent of the percentage of the <100> texture. In B2 NiAl and NiAl +2wt.%HfC alloy the fraction of SGBs decreases continuously with increasing percentage of the <111> texture. The <110> texture does not have a strong effect on LABs. Processing of B2 FeAl by shock-loading and subsequent annealing can increase the fraction of LABs to 90-97%. This effect is not observed in B2 NiAl. Instead, the premature abnormal grain growth occurs, accelerated by the accumulated shock strain energy. In B2 compounds the fraction of LABs seems to increase nearly linearly up to the limit of ~20% with decreasing grain size from ~400 to ~100 µm. For grain sizes smaller than ~100 µm the fraction of LABs seems to be independent of grain size. The fraction of SGBs does not exhibit any dependence on grain size.




251 records found

 

 

  
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